Production and use of multimeric hemoglobins

ABSTRACT

DNA molecules which encode pseudodimeric globin-like polypeptides with an asymmetric cysteine mutation suitable for crosslinking two tetramers, or which encode pseudooligomeric globin-like polypeptides comprising four or more globin-like domains, are useful in the preparation of multimeric hemoglobin-like proteins.

This is a division of parent application Ser. No. 08/443,890 filed May 31, 1995, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,739,011, which is a continuation of Ser. No. 08/240,712 filed May 9, 1994, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,599,907, which is a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 07/789,179 filed Nov. 8, 1991, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,545,727, which is a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 07/671,707 filed Apr. 1, 1991, now abandoned, which is a division of PCT/US90/02654 filed May 10, 1990, which is a continuation-in-part of (a) Ser. No. 07/374,161 filed Jun. 30, 1989, now abandoned, (b) Ser. No. 07/379,116 filed Jul. 13, 1989, now abandoned, and (c) Ser. No. 07/349,623 filed May 10, 1989, now abandoned.

CROSS-REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

Hoffman and Nagai, U.S. Ser. No. 07/194,338, filed May 10, 1988, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,588, presently owned by Somatogen, Inc., relates to the use of low oxygen affinity and other mutant hemoglobins as blood substitutes, and to the expression of alpha and beta globin in nonerythroid cells. Hoffman and Nagai, U.S. Ser. No. 07/443,950, filed Dec. 1, 1989, abandoned, discloses certain additional dicysteine hemoglobin mutants; it is a continuation-in-part of Ser. No. 07/194,33 now U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,588. Anderson, et al., HEMOGLOBINS AS DRUG DELIVERY AGENTS, Ser. No. 07/789,177, filed Nov. 8, 1991, now abandoned discloses use of conjugation of hemoglobins with drugs as a means for delivery of the drug to a patient.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

1. Field of the Invention

The present invention is directed to multimeric hemoglobin-like proteins composed of two or more pseudotetramers linked together either by genetic fusion or by chemical crosslinking.

2. Description of the Background Art

A. Structure and Function of Hemoglobin

Hemoglobin (Hgb) or Hb is the oxygen-carrying component of blood. Hemoglobin circulates through the bloodstream inside small enucleate cells called erythrocytes (red blood cells). Hemoglobin is a protein constructed from four associated polypeptide chains, and bearing prosthetic groups known as hemes. The erythrocyte helps maintain hemoglobin in its reduced, functional form. The here iron atom is susceptible to oxidation, but may be reduced again by one of two enzyme systems within the erythrocyte, the cytochrome b₅ and glutathione reduction systems.

The structure of hemoglobin is well known. We herewith incorporate by reference the entire text of Bunn and Forget, eds., Hemoglobin: Molecular, Genetic and Clinical Aspects (W. B. Saunders Co., Philadelphia, Pa.: 1986) and of Fermi and Perutz “Hemoglobin and Myoglobin,” in Phillips and Richards, Atlas of Molecular Structures in Biology (Clarendon Press: 1981).

About 92% of the normal adult human hemolysate is Hgb A (designated alpha2 beta2, because it comprises two alpha and two beta chains). Other recognized hemoglobin species are Hgb A₂ (α₂ δ₂), Hgb A_(1a), Hgb A_(1b), and Hgb A_(1c), as well as the rare species Hgb F (α₂ gamma), Hgb Gower-1 (Zeta₂ epsilon₂), Hgb Gower-2 (alpha₂ epsilon₂), Hgb Portland (Zeta₂ gamma₂), and Hgb H (beta₄) and Hgb Bart (gamma₄). They are distinguished from Hgb A by a different selection of polypeptide chains.

The primary structure of a polypeptide is defined by its amino acid sequence and by identification of any modifications of the side chains of the individual amino acids. The amino acid sequences of both the alpha and beta globin polypeptide chains of “normal” human hemoglobin is given in Table 1. Many mutant forms are also known; several mutants are identified in Table 400. The wild-type alpha chain consists of 141 amino acids. The iron atom of the heme (ferroprotoporphyrin IX) group is bound covalently to the imidazole of His 87 (the “proximal histidine”). The wild-type beta chain is 146 residues long and heme is bound to it at His 92. Apohemoglobin is the heme-free analogue of hemoglobin; it exists predominantly as the αβ-globin dimer.

Segments of polypeptide chains may be stabilized by folding into one of two common conformations, the alpha helix and the beta pleated sheet. In its native state, about 75% of the hemoglobin molecule is alpha-helical. Alpha-helical segments are separated by segments wherein the chain is less constrained. It is conventional to identify the alpha-helical segments of each chain by letters, e.g., the proximal histidine of the alpha chain is F8 (residue 8 of helix F). The non-helical segments are identified by letter pairs, indicating which helical segments they connect. Thus, nonhelical segment BC lies between helix B and helix C. In comparing two variants of a particular hemoglobin chain, it may be enlightening to attempt to align the helical segments when seeking to find structural homologies. For the amino acid sequence and helical residue notation for normal human hemoglobin A_(o) alpha and beta chains, see Bunn and Forget, supra, and Table 1 herein.

The tertiary structure of the hemoglobin molecule refers to the steric relationships of amino acid residues that are far apart in the linear sequence, while quaternary structure refers to the way in which the subunits (chains) are packed together. The tertiary and quaternary structure of the hemoglobin molecule have been discerned by X-ray diffraction analysis of hemoglobin crystals, which allows one to calculate the three-dimensional positions of the very atoms of the molecule.

In its unoxygenated (“deoxy”, or “T” for “tense”) form, the subunits of hemoglobin A (alpha1, alpha2, beta1, and beta2) form a tetrahedron having a twofold axis of symmetry. The axis runs down a water-filled “central cavity”. The subunits interact with one another by means of Van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds and by ionic interactions (or “salt bridges”). The alpha1beta1 and alpha2beta2 interfaces remain relatively fixed during oxygenation. In contrast, there is considerable flux at the alpha1beta2 (and alpha2beta1) interface. In its oxygenated (“oxy”, or “R” for “relaxed” form), the intersubunit distances are increased.

The tertiary and quaternary structures of native oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin are sufficiently well known that almost all of the nonhydrogen atoms can be positioned with an accuracy of 0.5 Å or better. For human deoxyhemoglobin, see Fermi, et al., J. Mol. Biol., 175: 159 (1984), and for human oxyhemoglobin, see Shaanan, J. Mol. Biol., 171: 31 (1983), both incorporated by reference.

Normal hemoglobin has cysteines at beta 93 (F9), beta 112 (G14), and alpha 104 (G11). The latter two positions are deeply buried in both the oxy and deoxy states; they lie near the α₁β₁ interface. Beta 93, however, in the oxy form is reactive with sulfhydryl reagents.

Native human hemoglobin has been fully reconstituted from separated heme-free alpha and beta globin and from hemin. Preferably, heme is first added to the alpha-globin subunit. The heme-bound alpha globin is then complexed to the heme-free beta subunit. Finally, heme is added to the half-filled globin dimer, and tetrameric hemoglobin is obtained. Yip, et al., PNAS (USA), 74: 64-68 (1977).

The human alpha and beta globin genes reside on chromosomes 16 and 11, respectively. Bunn and Forget, infra at 172. Both genes have been cloned and sequenced, Liebhaber, et al., PNAS 77: 7054-58 (1980) (alpha-globin genomic DNA); Marotta, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 252: 5040-53 (1977) (beta globin cDNA); Lawn, et al., Cell, 21:647 (1980) (beta globin genomic DNA).

Hemoglobin exhibits cooperative binding of oxygen by the four subunits of the hemoglobin molecule (two alpha-globins and two beta-globins in the case of Hgb A), and this cooperativity greatly facilitates efficient oxygen transport. Cooperativity, achieved by the so-called heme-heme interaction, allows hemoglobin to vary its affinity for oxygen. Hemoglobin reversibly binds up to four moles of oxygen per mole of Hgb.

Oxygen-carrying compounds are frequently compared by means of a device known as an oxygen dissociation curve. This curve is obtained when, for a given oxygen carrier, oxygen saturation or content is graphed against the partial pressure of oxygen. For Hgb, the percentage of saturation increases with partial pressure according to a sigmoid relationship. The P₅₀ is the partial pressure at which the oxygen-carrying solution is half saturated with oxygen. It is thus a measure of oxygen-binding affinity; the higher the P₅₀, the more loosely the oxygen is held.

When the oxygen dissociation curve of an oxygen-carrying solution is such that the P₅₀ is less than that for whole blood, it is said to be “left-shifted.”

The oxygen affinity of hemoglobin is lowered by the presence of 2,3-diphosphoglycerate (2,3-DPG), chloride. ions and hydrogen ions. Respiring tissue releases carbon dioxide into the blood and lowers its pH (i.e. increases the hydrogen ion concentration), thereby causing oxygen to dissociate from hemoglobin and allowing it to diffuse into individual cells.

The ability of hemoglobin to alter its oxygen affinity, increasing the efficiency of oxygen transport around the body, is dependent on the presence of the metabolite 2,3-DPG. Inside the erythrocyte 2,3-DPG is present at a concentration nearly as great as that of hemoglobin itself. In the absence of 2,3-DPG “conventional” hemoglobin binds oxygen very tightly and would release little oxygen to respiring tissue.

Aging erythrocytes release small amounts of free hemoglobin into the blood plasma where it is rapidly bound by the scavenging protein haptoglobin. The hemoglobin-haptoglobin complex is removed from the blood and degraded by the spleen and liver.

Isolated alpha globin chains are monomers; exhibit high oxygen affinity but of course lack subunit cooperativity. Isolated beta globin chains aggregate to form a β₄ tetramer (HbH) The β₄ tetramer has a high but noncooperative oxygen affinity.

B. Blood Substitutes, Generally

It is not always practical to transfuse a patient with donated blood. In these situations, use of a red blood cell substitute is desirable. The product must effectively transport O₂, just as do red blood cells. (“Plasma expanders”, such as dextran and albumin, do not transport oxygen.) The two types of substitutes that have been studied most extensively are hemoglobin solutions and fluorocarbon emulsions.

It is clear from the above considerations that free native hemoglobin A, injected directly into the bloodstream, would not support efficient oxygen transport about the body. The essential allosteric regulator 2,3-DPG is not present in sufficient concentration in the plasma to allow hemoglobin to release much oxygen at venous oxygen tension.

Nonetheless, solutions of conventional hemoglobin have been used as RBC substitutes. The classic method of preparing hemoglobin solutions employs outdated blood. The red cells are lysed and cellular debris is removed, leaving what is hopefully “stromal-free hemoglobin” (SFH).

Several basic problems have been observed with this approach. The solution must be freed of any toxic components of the red cell membrane without resorting to cumbersome and tedious procedures which would discourage large-scale production. DeVenuto, “Appraisal of Hemoglobin Solution as a Blood Substitute”, Surgery, Gynecology and Obstetrics, 149: 417-436 (1979).

Second, as expected, such solutions are “left-shifted” (lower P₅₀) as compared to whole blood. Gould, et al., “The Development of Polymerized Pyridoxylated Hemoglobin Solution as a Red Cell Substitute”, Ann. Emerg. Med. 15: 1416-1419 (Dec. 3, 1986). As a result, the oxygen affinity is too high to unload enough oxygen into the tissues. Benesch and Benesch, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm., 26:162-167 (1967).

Third, SFH has only a limited half-life in the circulatory system. This is because oxy Hgb partially dissociates into a dimer (αβ) that is rapidly cleared from the blood by glomerular filtration and binding to circulating haptoglobin. If large amounts of soluble hemoglobin are introduced into the circulation, glomerular filtration of the dimers may lead to a protein and iron load on the kidney capable of causing renal damage. Bunn, H. F., et al. (1969) The renal handling of hemoglobin I. Glomerular filtration. J. Exp. Med. 129:909-923; Bunn, H. F., and J. H. Jandl; (1969) The renal handling of hemoglobin II. Catabolism. J. Exp. Med. 129:925-934; Lee, R. L., et al. (1989) Ultrapure, stroma-free, polymerized bovine hemoglobin solution: Evaluation of renal toxicity (blood substitutes) J. Surgical Res. 47:407-411; Feola, M., et al. (1990) Nephrotoxicity of hemoglobin solutions. Biomat. Art. Cell Art. Org., 18(2):233-249; Tam, S. C. and J. T. F. Wong (1988) Impairment of renal function by stroma-free hemoglobin in rats. J. Lab. Clin. Med. 111:189-193.

Finally, SFH has a high colloid osmotic pressure (COD). Thus, administration of SFH in a dose that would have the same oxygen-carrying capacity as a unit of packed red blood cells is inadvisable, since the high osmotic pressure would cause a massive influx of water from the cells into the bloodstream, thus dehydrating the patient's tissues, This consideration limits the dose of SFH to that which provide a final concentration of about 6-8 gm Hgb/dl.

In an effort to restore the desired P₅₀, researchers added 2,3-DPG to the hemoglobin solution. Unfortunately, 2,3-DPG was rapidly eliminated from the circulation. Scientists then turned to other organic phosphates, particularly pyridoxal phosphate. Like 2,3-DPG, these compounds stabilized the “T state” of the Hgb by forming a salt bridge between the N-termini of the two beta chains. The pyridoxylated hemoglobin had a P₅₀ of 20-22 torr, as compared to 10 torr for SFH and 28 torr for whole blood. While this is an improvement over SFH, the pyridoxylated Hgb remains “high affinity” relative to whole blood.

C. Naturally occurring Cysteine Substitution Mutants of Hemoglobin (Non-Polymerizing)

There are a few known naturally occurring mutants of human hemoglobin in which a cysteine residue is substituted for another residue of normal hemoglobin Ao.

In hemoglobin Nigeria, the mutation is α 81 Ser→Cys; no disulfide is formed. Haris, et al., Blood, 55(1):131-137 (1980). In Hemoglobin Rainier, an intrasubunit disulfide is formed between the wild type F9(93)β Cysteine and the cysteine introduced by replacement of the Tyr at HC2(145)β. Greer, et al., Nature [New Biology], 230:261-264 (1971). Hemoglobin Nunobiki (141 Arg→Cys) also features a non-polymerizing cysteine substitution. In both Hb Rainier and Hb Nunobiki, the new cysteine residues are on the surface of the tetramer.

D. Naturally Occurring Polymerizing or Polymeric Hemoglobins

Three other human mutants are known which polymerize as a result of formation of intermolecular (first tetramer to second tetramer) disulfide bridges. In Hemoglobin Porto Alegre, the Ser at A6(9)β is replaced by Cysteine, and since this cysteinyl residue is externally oriented, spontaneous polymerization occurs, and results in formation of a dodecamer with three Porto Alegre tetramers linked by disulfide bonds. An octamer has also been made by a 1:1 mixture of Porto Alegre hemoglobin and normal hemoglobin. Tondo, Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 342:15-20 (1974); Tondo, An. Acad. Bras. Cr., 59:243-251 (1987).

Hb Mississippi is characterized by a cysteine substitution in place of Ser CD3(44)β. Hemolysates of a patient were subjected to gel filtration column chromatography, and 48.8% eluted in the void volume. Since the molecular weight exclusion was about 600 kD, this suggested that Hb MS polymers are composed of ten or more hemoglobin tetramers. Adams, et al., Hemoglobin, 11(5):435-452 (1987).

A β83(EF7)Gly→Cys mutation characterizes Hemoglobin Ta Li. This mutant showed slow mobility in starch gel electrophoresis, indicating that it was a polymer.

Polymeric mouse hemoglobins have been reported. In BALB/cJ mice, there is a reactive cysteinyl residue near the NH₂-terminal of the beta chain (β-13 in the mouse). This mouse mutant has been compared to Hemoglobin Porto Alegre, which likewise has a cysteinyl residue in the A-helix of the beta chain. Octamer formation is most common. However, each tetramer has two extra cysteinyl residues, one on each β-chain, that may react with different tetramers; “this explains why aggregates larger than octamers occur”. Benaventura and Riggs, Science, 149:800-802 (1967); Riggs, Science, 147:621-623 (1965).

Macaques also exhibit a polymerizing hemoglobin variant. Takenaka, et al., Biopchem. Biophys. Acta, 492:433-444 (1977); Ishimoto, et al., J. Anthrop. Soc. Nippon, 83(3):233-243 (1975) . This mutant has been compared to the Ta Li variant in humans.

Both amphibians and reptiles possess polymerizing hemoglobins. For example, in the bullfrog, hemoglobin “Component C” polymerizes by disulfide bond formation between tetramers. This is said to be primarily dependent on cysteinyl residues of the alpha chain. Tam, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 261:8290-94 (1986).

The extracellular hemoglobin of the earthworm (Lumbricus terrestris) has a complex structure. There are twelve subunits, each being a dimer of structure (abcd)₂ where “a”, “b”, “c”, and “d” denote the major heme containing chains. The “a”, “b”, and “c” chains form a disulfide-linked trimer. The whole molecule is composed of 192 heme-containing chains and 12 non-heme chains, and has a molecular weight of 3800 kDa. Other invertebrate hemoglobins are also large multi-subunit proteins.

The brine shrimp Artemia produces three polymeric hemoglobins with nine genetically fused globin subunits. Manning, et al., Nature, 348:653 (1990). These are formed by variable association of two different subunit types, α and β. Of the eight intersubunit linkers, six are 12 residues long, one is 11 residues and one is 14 residues.

E. Artificially Crosslinked Hemoglobins (Non-Polymerizing)

The properties of hemoglobin have been altered by specifically chemically crosslinking the alpha chains between the Lys99 of alpha1 and the Lys99 of alpha2 Walder, U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,600,531 and 4,598,064; Snyder, et al., PNAS (USA) 84: 7280-84 (1987); Chaterjee, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 261: 9927-37 (1986). The beta chains have also been chemically crosslinked. Kavanaugh, et al., Biochemistry, 27: 1804-8( 1988). Kavanaugh notes that the beta N-termini are 16 Å apart in the T state and 20 Å apart in the R state. Not surprisingly, the introduction of a DIDS bridge between the N-termini of T state hemoglobin hindered the shift to the R state, thereby decreasing the O₂ affinity of the molecule. While the Kavanaugh analogue has desirable oxygen binding and renal clearance characteristics, it too is obtained in low yield.

Hoffman and Nagai, U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,588 suggest that the T state of hemoglobin may be stabilized by intersubunit (but intratetrameric) disulfide crosslinks resulting from substitution of cysteine residues for other residues. A particularly preferred crosslink was one connecting beta Gly Cys with either alpha G17 (Ala→Cys) or G18 (Ala→Cys).

F. Artificially Crosslinked Hemoglobin (Polymerizing)

Bonsen, U.S. Pat. No. 4,001,401, U.S. Pat. No. 4,001,200, and U.S. Pat. No. 4,053,590 all relate to polymerization of red blood cell-derived. hemoglobin by chemical crosslinking. The crosslinking is achieved with the aid of bifunctional or polyfunctional crosslinking agents, especially those reactive with exposed amino groups of the globin chains. The result of the crosslinking reaction is a polydisperse composition of covalently cross-linked aggregates.

Bonhard, U.S. Pat. No. 4,336,248 discloses chemical crosslinking of hemoglobin molecules to each other, or to serum proteins such as albumin.

Bonhard, U.S. Pat. No. 4,777,244 sought to stabilize the dialdehyde-cross-linked hemoglobins of the prior art, which tended to polymerized further while in storage, by adding a reducing agent to stabilize the azomethine bond.

Bucci, U.S. Pat. No. 4,584,130, at col. 2, comments that “the polyhemoglobin reaction products are a heterogeneous mixture of various molecular species which differ in size and shape. The molecular weights thereof range from 64,500 to 600,000 Daltons. The separation of individual molecular species from the heterogeneous mixture is virtually impossible. In addition, although longer retention times in vivo are obtained using polyhemoglobins, the oxygen affinity thereof is higher than that of stroma-free hemoglobin.”

According to Tye, U.S. Pat. No. 4,529,179, “most workers have chosen to form the random intermolecular crosslinked polymers of hemoglobin because they believed that the 65,000 Dalton tetramer was filtered by the glomerulus . . . . Usually the amino groups of lysine on the surface of the hemoglobin molecule are coupled with a bifunctional reactant such as glutaraldehyde or suberimidate. There are 42 lysines available for reaction per hemoglobin tetramer so that one can get an infinite number of different inter [or] intra molecular crosslinks making various polymers of hemoglobin . . . . The random polymerization is difficult to control and gives a range between two and ten tetramers per polymer . . . . No one has yet standardized an analytical scheme to establish lot to lot variability of structure and function . . . . [Polymerized pyridoxylated hemoglobin has] a profound chemical heterogeneity making it difficult to study as a pharmaceutical agent.”

G. Fused Genes and Proteins, Generally

Genes may be fused together by removing the stop codon of the first gene, and joining it in phase to the second gene. Parts of genes may also be fused, and spacer DNAs which maintain phase may be interposed between the fused sequences. The product of a fused gene is a single polypeptide, not a plurality of polypeptides as is expressed by a polycistronic operon. Different genes have been fused together for a variety of purposes. Thus, Gilbert, U.S. Pat. No, 4,338,397 inserted a rat preproinsulin gene behind a fragment of the E. coli penicillinase gene. His purpose was to direct E. coli transformants to secrete the

expression product of the fused gene. Fused genes have also been prepared so that a non-antigenic polypeptide may be expressed already conjugated to an immunogenic carrier protein.

The use of linker DNA sequences to join two different DNA sequences is known. These linkers are used to provide restriction sites for DNA cleavage, or to encode peptides having a unique character that facilitates purification of the encoded fusion protein or a fragment thereof. See, e.g., Rutter, U.S. Pat. No. 4,769,326.

Hallewell, et al., J. Biol. Chem., 264: 5260-68 (1989) prepared an analogue of CuZn superoxide dismutase. Each dismutase molecule is a dimer of two identical subunits; a copper ion and a zinc ion are liganded to the subunit. The dimer interaction in CuZn superoxide dismutase is so strong that the subunits have not been separated without inactivating the enzyme. The enzyme has considerable conformational similarity to immunoglobulins; Hallewell, et al., joined two human superoxide dismutase genes, either directly or with DNA encoding a 19-residue human immunologlobulin IgA1 hinge region and expressed the fused genes in a transformed host. In attempting to express the directly joined genes, recombination occurred to eliminate one of the tandem genes in some plasmid molecules. Hallewell, et al., postulated that the direct connection distorted the dimer, causing the exposure of hydrophobic areas which then had a toxic effect. This would have provided selection pressure favoring gene deletion. No recombination was detected with the IgA1 linker construction.

Hoffman, et al., WO88/09179 describe the production, in bacteria and yeast, of hemoglobin and analogues thereof. The disclosed analogues including hemoglobin proteins in which one of the component polypeptide chains consists of two alpha or two beta globin amino acid sequences covalently connected by peptide bonds, preferably through an intermediate linker of one or more amino acids, without branching. In normal hemoglobin, the alpha and beta globin subunits are non-covalently bound.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to multimeric hemoglobin-like proteins wherein two or more tetramers or pseudotetramers are covalently bonded. Between any pair of covalently linked tetramers, the covalent linkage may take the form of a crosslink between two cysteine residues of different polypeptide chains, or of a peptide linker connecting the “carboxy most” residue of a globin-like domain of one tetramer with the “amino most” residue of a similar domain of a second tetramer.

Preferably, the multimeric hemoglobin-like protein-containing composition is at least 50% monodisperse, more preferably, at least 95% monodisperse.

Although free hemoglobin purified from natural sources may be polymerized by chemical crosslinking to increase halflife via increased molecular weight, and to reduce oncotic pressure, all such preparations are heterogeneous. Monodispersability can be achieved only by laborious purification.

The present invention provides means of exerting strict control over the degree of polymerization of hemoglobin tetramers. The ability to strictly control formation of multimers will greatly facilitate purification and characterization of the final product and will reduce the chance of adverse reaction to minor components. It is also believed that a more monodisperse composition will have greater consistency of clinical effect.

Hemoglobin also may be made by expression of alpha and beta globin genes in the same or different host cells, and subsequent assembly of the expressed alpha and beta globins, with heme, to form hemoglobin. While the introduction of suitable Cys codon mutations into the globin genes facilitates the production of a crosslinked multimeric hemoglobin, the expression product in general, will not be essentially monodisperse. Hemoglobin is composed of two alpha and two beta globin subunits. Both alpha globin subunits are natively expressed from a single alpha globin gene, and both beta globin subunits, from a single beta globin gene. Thus, if an alpha globin gene is expressed which contains a single Cys codon substitution, the assembled tetramer will contain two alpha globin subunits, each with a crosslinkable Cys. One Cys could crosslink to a second tetramer, and the other to a third, thus resulting in formation of a higher order oligomer.

In one embodiment, the multimeric protein is an octamer consisting essentially of two tetramers which are covalently crosslinked. To avoid unwanted polymerization, each tetramer has only a single participating cysteinyl residue, whose thiol groups are reacted either with each other (under oxidizing conditions, forming a disulfide bond) or with a thiol-reactive crosslinking agent, to form the crosslink.

A fused gene which encodes a single polypeptide comprising two globin-like domains may be mutated so as to provide an externally crosslinkable Cys in only one of the two otherwise substantially identical domains of the resulting pseudodimeric polypeptides. This pseudodimer may then be assembled with the complementary subunits to form a tetramer with only the single cysteine. Two such tetramers, finally, may be crosslinked to obtain the octamer, preferably in essentially monodisperse form.

If the formation of a higher order multimer, such as a dodecamer, is desired, the component pseudotetramers, each having a single externally crosslinkable cysteine, are each covalently attached to a reactive site of a polyfunctional crosslinker having a suitable half-life in the bloodstream.

Another way of obtaining a multimeric hemoglobin instead of crosslinking two or more pseudotetramers, is to combine their pseudodimeric subunits into a single pseudooligomer that is shared by all of the component pseudotetramers of the multimeric hemoglobin. For example a pseudooctameric polypeptide, comprising eight alpha globin-like domains, joined covalently by peptide bonds (typically with a peptide spacer), may be assembled with eight individual beta globin-like subunits to form a tetra-tetrameric human hemoglobin-like protein. Higher order multimers may be prepared simply by expressing a suitable pseudooligomer and assembling it with the complementary monomeric subunits.

The preparation of multimeric hemoglobins with a genetically fused pseudooligomeric backbone avoids the disadvantages of chemical crosslinking. The latter is inefficient and often requires deoxygenation of the hemoglobin solution and the presence of another molecule (e.g., inositol hexaphosphate or 2,3-DPG) to prevent competing reactions.

In the embodiments discussed above, an essentially monodisperse multimeric hemoglobin is achieved by limiting the number of externally crosslinkable cysteines to one per tetramer. However, it is possible to have more than one externally crosslinkable cysteine per tetramer, provided that they are so positioned that after one is crosslinked to a foreign tetramer, other foreign tetramers are sterically prevented from crosslinking to the remaining cysteines of the original tetramer.

The multimeric proteins of the present invention, particularly at higher levels of polymerization, may prolong the half-life of recombinant hemoglobin by reducing extravasation and glomerular filtration of dissociated subunits in vivo compared to native human hemoglobin. Studies of halflife as a function of macromolecular size indicate a correlation between increased size and increased circulatory halflife for chemically crosslinked Hb as well as other macromolecules. Preferably, in humans, the half-life exceeds 9 hours at a dose of at least 1 gm/kgm body weight. This would be expected to correspond to a half-life of about 3 hours in rats given a comparable dose.

Intravascular retention may also be enhanced by engineering the tetramer crosslinking sites so that the haptoglobin binding sites of the tetramers are wholly or partially occluded. Independent mutations may also be made to sterically hinder haptoglobin binding, or to electrostatically repel or sterically hinder the approach of agents which otherwise might degrade the crosslink.

The multimeric proteins of the present invention may also increase oncotic pressure because the number of oxygen binding heme groups per polytetramer of order “n” is “n” times the number per tetramer. Independent of size, the oncotic pressure for a given concentration of heme groups in a solution of polytetrameric Hb is expected to be (1/n) times that of an equimolar solution of heme contained in tetrameric Hb. Because of oncotic pressure effects, the maximum concentration of free tetrameric Hb that may be introduced into the blood stream is less on a per volume basis than the concentration of Hb normally carried in intact red blood cells. Reduction of oncotic pressure is therefore useful in increasing the per volume oxygen carrying capacity of a blood substitute.

In a preferred embodiment, one or more globin-like domains contain mutations which reduce the oxygen-binding affinity of the hemoglobin analogue in solution so as to approach the oxygen-binding characteristics of whole blood.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 Plasmid pSGE1.1E4. This plasmid bears a polycistronic operon which comprises the pTAC promoter and genes encoding a di-alpha globin and a beta globin. It also carries tetracycline and ampicillin resistance genes, and the lacI gene.

FIGS. 2a-2 e Shows the sequence [SEQ ID NO:1] of a preferred synthetic gene for expression of (des-Val)-alpha-(Gly)-alpha and des-Val beta globin. This gene is carried by pSGE1.1E4. A shows the region (EcoRI to PstI) containing Shine-Delgarno ribosomal binding sites (SD#1 and SD#2), the sequence expressing the octapeptide (Met . . . Glu) (SEQ ID NO:23) which serves as a cotranslational coupler, and the sequence encoding the two nearly identical alpha globin-like polypeptides and the interposed Gly-Gly linker. The first alpha globin sequence begins “Met-Leu”, that is, it contains an artifactual methionine, omits the valine which is the normal first residue of mature alpha globin, and continues with the second residue, leucine. The residues are numbered 1 to 141 (SEQ ID NO:24). The second alpha globin sequence begins “Val-Leu”, immediately after the underlined “Gly-Gly” linker. The residues are numbered 1′ to 141′ (SEQ ID NO:25). Start and stop codons are underlined. B shows the analogous region (PstI to HindIII) containing the coding sequence for des-Val beta globin. The beta residues are numbered 1 to 146. (SEQ ID NO.26). A and B are connected at the PstI site to form a single polycistronic operon.

When a three letter amino acid code is singly underlined, this indicates that the residue is a potential site for an Xaa→Cys mutation to provide a crosslinkable site. The mutations should be made asymmetrically, i.e., in only one region of a di-alpha or di-beta gene, so only one crosslink is added per tetramer. While, in FIGS. 2a-2 e, show the sites are marked only on the first copy of the alpha gene, they could instead be in the second copy. For convenience, the appropriate beta globin mutation sites are also marked. However, these mutations should be made in only one beta-globin of a di-beta globin gene.

Doubly underlined amino acid codes identify sites where formation of two disulfide bonds (or per subunit) would be sterically hindered, so use of a di-alpha or di-beta construction is unnecessary.

Residues which are candidate sites for mutations to block haptoglobin binding are boxed.

FIG. 3 is a stylized representation of one form of pseudooctameric Hgb, in which the octameric hemoglobin is formed by linking or crosslinking two molecules of an asymmetric di-alpha Hgb.

FIGS. 4a-4 b depict coiled coil crosslinkers suitable for a joining (a) four or (b) six Hgb tetramers. FIG. 4 is a top view of a 4-helical bundle, with attachment sites marked.

FIGS. 5a-5 c Schematics showing how cysteine mutations can favor formation of octamer without genetic fusion of subunits.

FIG. 6 Proposed alpha₁-beta₂ globin pseudodimer.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS Definitions

A hemoglobin is a protein which contains heme (ferroprotoporphyrin IX) and that binds oxygen at a respiratory surface (skin, gills, trachea, lung, etc.) and transports the oxygen to inner tissues, where it is released and used for metabolism. In nature, low molecular weight hemoglobins (16-120 kilodaltons) tend to be enclosed in circulating red blood cells while the larger polymeric hemoglobins circulate freely in the blood or hemolymph.

For the purpose of the appended claims, a hemoglobin-like protein is a protein with the following characteristics:

(a) it is sufficiently soluble in blood to be clinically useful as a blood substitute;

(b) it reversibly binds oxygen, under physiological conditions;

(c) each polypeptide chain comprises at least one globin-like domain (as defined below); and

(d) each globin-like domain bears (or is capable of incorporating) a heme prosthetic group;

A multimeric hemoglobin-like protein is further characterized as follows:

(e) it is composed of two or more polypeptide chains;

(f) it is composed of two or more tetramers, each tetramer comprising four globin-like-domains, and

(g) each component tetramer is covalently attached to at least one other component tetramer.

Preferably, the hemoglobin-like proteins of the present invention have a PSD of 2 to 45 -torr, more preferably 24 to 32 torr, at 37° C., in blood. Preferably, they also exhibit some degree of cooperativity. Also, they desirably have an intravascular retention at least comparable to that of normal human hemoglobin administered as a blood substitute.

Tetrameric hemoglobin-like proteins have four globin-like domains, octameric hemoglobin-like proteins have eight globin-like domains, and so forth. The term “multimeric” covers any hemoglobin-like protein comprising (4×n) globin-like domains, where n>1.

A pseudomeric hemoglobin-like protein is one for which the number of globin-like domains is greater than the number of component polypeptide chains, i.e., at least one chain comprises at least two globin-like domains. The pseudoheterotetrameric hemoglobin-like proteins, for example, may be composed of (a) one di-alpha globin-like and two beta globin-like polypeptides, (b) two alpha globin-like and one di-beta globin-like polypeptides, (c) one di-alpha globin-like and one di-beta globin-like polypeptides, (d) one fused alpha/beta globin-like polypeptide and separate alpha and beta globin-like polypeptides, or (e) two fused alpha/beta globin-like polypeptides. The term “tetramer” includes “pseudotetramers.”

A “genetically fused hemoglobin” is a hemoglobin-like protein comprising at least one “genetically fused globin-like polypeptide”, (globin pseudooligomer), the latter comprising two or more globin-like domains which may be the same or different and which are connected directly, or through an amino acid or peptide linker. A di-alpha globin-like polypeptide is one which consists, essentially of two alpha-globin-like polypeptide sequences (domains) connected by peptide bonds between the normal C- terminus of the first alpha-globin-like polypeptide (domain) and the normal N-terminus of the second alpha-globin-like polypeptide (domain). These two sequences may be directly connected, or connected through a peptide linker of one or more amino acids; the term “peptide bonds” is intended to embrace both possibilities. Alpha globin chains crosslinked at the N- and C-terminals other than by peptide bonds (e.g., by DIDS) are not di-alpha globins. The di-alpha globin-like polypeptide must be capable of folding together with beta globin and incorporating heme to form functional hemoglobin-like protein. The di-beta globin-like polypeptide is analogously defined. A di-alpha or di-beta globin-like polypeptide with a mutation in only one of the component domains is called “asymmetric”.

It is also possible to provide an “alpha/beta-globin-like pseudodimer” in which an alpha globin-like sequence is connected by peptide bonds to a beta globin-like sequence. This “alpha/beta globin-like polypeptide”, and the di-alpha and di-beta globin-like polypeptides, may collectively be referred to as “pseudodimeric globin-like polypeptides” or as “diglobins”. By extension, a hemoglobin-like protein comprising a di-alpha, a di-beta, or a alpha/beta globin-like polypeptide is a “pseudotetramer”.

Pseudotetramers which bear only a single externally crosslinkable cysteine may be referred, by way of shorthand, as “mono-cys” molecules. However, the use of this term should not be taken as implying that the tetramer may not comprise other cysteines. A “mono-cys” pseudotetramer is merely one which has only a single cysteine which can participate to a significant degree in crosslinking reactions with a cysteine residue of a second pseudotetramer.

A hemoglobin-like protein is said to be heteromeric if at least two of its globin-like domains are different. Since conventional human hemoglobin is composed of two alpha globins and two beta globins, it is a heterotetramer. A multimeric human hemoglobin-like protein is a heteromer wherein-each-tetramer or pseudotetramer has two human alpha globin-like domains and two human beta globin-like domains.

The Globin-Like Domain

The globin-like domains may be, but need not be, one per polypeptide chain, and they need not correspond exactly in sequence to the alpha and beta globins of normal human-hemoglobin. Rather, mutations may be introduced to alter the oxygen affinity (or its cooperativity, or its (dependence on pH, salt, temperature, or other environmental parameters) or stability (to heat, acid, alkali, or other denaturing agents) of the hemoglobin, to facilitate genetic fusion or crosslinking, or to increase the ease of expression and assembly of the individual chains. Guidance as to certain types of mutations is provided, e.g., by Hoffman and Nagi, U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,588, and Ser. No. 07/443,950, abandoned, incorporated by reference herein. The present invention further includes molecules which depart from those taught herein by gratuitous mutations which do not substantially affect biological activity.

A “globin-like domain” is a polypeptide domain which is substantially homologous with a globin subunit of a naturally occurring hemoglobin. A “vertebrate,” “mammalian” or “human” globin-like domain is one which is substantially homologous with a globin subunit oft respectively, a naturally occurring vertebrate, mammalian or human hemoglobin.

A human alpha globin-like domain or polypeptide is native human alpha globin or a mutant thereof differing from the native sequence by one or more substitutions, deletions or insertions, while remaining substantially homologous (as hereafter defined) with human alpha globin, and still capable of incorporating heme and associating with beta globin. The term “human alpha globin-like domain” is intended to include but not be limited to naturally occurring human alpha globins, including normal human alpha globin. A beta globin-like domain or polypeptide is analogously defined. Subunits of animal hemoglobins or mutants thereof which are sufficiently homologous with human alpha or beta globin are embraced by the term “human alpha or beta globin-like domain or polypeptide.” For example, the subunits of bovine hemoglobin are within the scope of these terms.

In determining whether a polypeptide is substantially homologous to alpha (or beta) globin, sequence similarity is an important but not exclusive criterion. Sequence similarity may be determined by conventional algorithms, which typically allow introduction of a small number of gaps in order to achieve the best fit. A human alpha-globin-like domain will typically have at least about 75% sequence identity with wild-type human alpha globin, and greater homology with human alpha globin than with human beta globin. However, a polypeptide of lesser sequence identity may still be considered “substantially homologous” with alpha globin if it has a greater sequence identity than would be expected from chance and also has the characteristic higher structure (e.g., the “myoglobin fold”) of alpha globin, the ability to incorporate heme, and oxygen-binding activity. (Note that, as elsewhere explained, an alteration in oxygen affinity (P₅₀), intravascular retention, or cooperativity may be desired, and does not render the mutant nonhomologous if it can still contribute to reversible oxygen-binding activity.) By way of comparison, Artemia's heme-binding domains are considered homologous with myoglobin even though the primary sequence similarity is no more than 27%, as alignment of the heme- binding domains around their conserved residues and the residues conserved in other hemoglobins (i.e., involved in heme contacts or in determining the relationship of the helical segments to each other) suggested that the Artemia domains possessed the classical globin helices A to H with their corresponding turns; as well as various conserved globin family residues. Also, among the serine protease inhibitors, there are families of proteins recognized to be homologous in which there are pairs of members with as little as 30% sequence homology.

Over a hundred mutants of human hemoglobin are known, affecting both the alpha and beta chains, and the effect of many of these mutations on oxygen-binding and other characteristics of hemoglobin are known. The human alpha and beta globins themselves differ at 84 positions. In addition, interspecies variations in globin sequence have been extensively studied. Dickerson, Hemoglobin: Structure, Function, Evolution and Pathology, ch. 3 (1983) reported that in 1982, the 60 known vertebrate alpha globins had identical residues at 23 of their 141 positions, while for the 66 vertebrate beta globins considered, 20 of the 146 amino acids are identical. The 60 vertebrate myoglobins, which also belong to the globin family, had 27 invariant amino acids out of 153 positions. If only mammals are considered, then the invariant amino acids are 50/141 for the alpha globins, 51/146 for the beta globins, and 71/153 for the myoglobins. Invariant positions cluster around the centers of activity of the molecule: the heme crevice and the intersubunit contacts of the variable amino acids, some diverge from the consensus sequence for only a small fraction of the species considered..

The number of total differences between human alpha globin- and selected other vertebrate alpha globins is as follows: rhesus monkey (4), cow (17), platypus (39), chicken (35), human zeta (embryonic) (61), carp (71), and shark (88). For invertebrate globins the divergences are sea lamprey (113), mollusc (124), Glycera (marine bloodworm) (124) and Chironomus (midge) (131). Turning to the beta globin family, the differences of human beta globin from other vertebrate beta globins are rhesus monkey (8), human delta globin (10), cow beta globin (25), cow gamma globin (33), human gamma globin (39), human epsilon (embryonic) globin (36), platypus (34), chicken (45), shark (96), sea lamprey (123), mollusc (127), Glycera (125) and Chironomus (128).

Many of these differences may be misleading—variable amino acids may exhibit only “conservative substitutions” of one amino acid for another, functionally equivalent one. A “conservative substitution” is a substitution which does not abolish the ability of a globin- like polypeptide (or domain) to incorporate heme and to associate with alpha and beta globin subunits to form a tetrameric (or pseudotetrameric) hemoglobin-like protein which, in keeping with the definition thereof, will reversibly bind oxygen. The following resources may be used to identify conservative substitutions (and deletions or insertions):

(a) data on functional hemoglobin mutants (over a hundred such mutants exist);

(b) data on sequence variations among vertebrate, especially mammalian, alpha globins and beta globins;

(c) data on sequence variations among vertebrate, especially mammalian, myoglobins;

(d) data on sequence variations between vertebrate and invertebrate, globins, or among the invertebrate globins;

(e) data on the three-dimensional structures of human hemoglobin and other oxygen-binding proteins, and molecular modelling software for predicting the effect of sequence changes on such structures; and

(f) data on the frequencies of amino acid changes between members of families of homologous proteins (not limited to the globin family). See, e.g., Table 1-2 of Schulz and Schirmer, Principles of Protein Structure (Springer- Verlag: 1979) and FIG. 3-9 of Creighton, Proteins: Structure and Molecular Properties (W.H. Freeman: 1983).

While the data from (a)-(d) is most useful in determining tolerable mutations at the site of variation in the cognate proteins, it may also be helpful in identifying tolerable mutations at analogous sites elsewhere in the molecule. Based on the data in category (f), the following exchange groups may be identified, within which substitutions of amino acids are frequently conservative:

I small aliphatic, nonpolar or slightly polar residues—Ala, Ser, Thr (Pro, Gly)

II negatively charged residues and their amides l —Asn, Asp, Glu, Gln

III positively charged residues—His, Arg, Lys

IV large aliphatic nonpolar residues—Met, Leu, Ile, Val (Cys)

V large aromatic residues—Phe, Tyr, Trp

Three residues are parenthesized because of their special roles in protein architecture. Gly is the only residue without a side chain and therefore imparts flexibility to the chain. Pro has an unusual geometry which tightly constrains the chain. Cys can participate in disulfide bonds which hold proteins into a particular folding. Note that Schulz and Schimer would merge I and II above. Note also that Tyr, because of its hydrogen bonding potential, has some kinship with Ser, Thr, etc.

In general, functionality is less likely to be affected by mutations at surface residues, at least those not involved in either the heme crevice or the subunit contacts. In addition, “loops” connecting alpha helices, as well as free amino or carboxy termini, are more tolerant of deletions and insertions.

A “Met FX alpha globin” is an alpha globin-like polypeptide comprising an N-terminal methionine, a oligopeptide which acts as a recognition site for Factor Xa (e.g., Ile-7Glu-Gly-Arg) (SEQ ID NO:2), and an alpha globin-like sequence (e.g., Val-His-Leu-Thr-Pro . . . ) (SEQ ID NO:3) which may correspond to wild-type alpha globin or to a mutant: thereof as taught herein. The term “Met FX alpha globin” is some-times abbreviated as “FX alpha globin”. “FX beta globin” is an analogously defined beta globin-like polypeptide.

“Met-alpha globin” is an alpha globin-like polypeptide with an extra N-terminal methionine. The second amino acid is valine, which is the first amino acid of mature wild-type alpha globin. Met-beta globin is analogously defined. A “Des-FX alpha globin” gene (or “dFX alpha globin”) is a Met-alpha globin gene obtained by excising the FX codons from a Met-FX alpha globin gene. Note that “Met-Hgb” is used to refer to methionyl Hgb formed from methionyl-alpha globin and methionyl-beta globin.

“Des-Val-alpha globin” (or “dVal alpha globin”) is an alpha globin-like polypeptide wherein methionine is substituted for the valine which begins the sequence of mature wild-type alpha globin. Des-Val-beta globin is analogously defined. Des-Val-alpha/alpha globin (di-Des-Val-alpha globin) is a “di- alpha globin” in which a “Des-Val-alpha” sequence is linked via an appropriate peptidyl linker to an alpha globin-like sequence which begins with Val.

Low Affinity Mutants

The term “low affinity hemoglobin-like protein” refers to a hemoglobin-like protein having a P₅₀ which is at least 10% greater than the P₅₀ of cell free normal hemoglobin A_(o) under the same conditions. Preferably, the protein, if used as a blood substitute, qualifies as a low affinity protein, and more preferably, its P50 is closer to the P₅₀ of whole blood cells than to that of cell free hemoglobin.

Low affinity mutant hemoglobins, i.e., those with “right shifted” oxygen equilibrium binding curves relative to cell-free normal hemoglobin, have many potential uses. Most notably, mutant hemoglobins that have an oxygen affinity similar to whole red blood cells may be used as an oxygen- carrying transfusion substitute in place of donated red blood cells, eliminating the risk of infection and alleviating problems with supply. Cell-free native human hemoglobin cannot function as a transfusion substitute, among other reasons because oxygen is bound too tightly. In addition, because cell-free hemoglobin solutions do not need to be cross-matched and are expected to have a longer shelf life than whole blood, low affinity hemoglobin solutions may be widely used in situations where whole blood transfusion is not feasible, for, example in an ambulance or on a battlefield, Mutant hemoglobins that have an even lower oxygen affinity than red blood cells may in fact delivery oxygen more effectively in many situations. Mutant hemoglobins that have a somewhat higher oxygen affinity than whole blood (but a lower affinity than cell-free native human hemoglobin) will still function as an adequate transfusion substitute and may in fact deliver oxygen more effectively than red blood cells in some situations. This is because oxygen is released directly to plasma form hemoglobin-based solutions, without the need to diffuse through the red cell membrane, and because cell-free hemoglobin may penetrate into regions not accessible to red blood cells. As an example, low affinity mutant hemoglobin is expected to deliver oxygen effectively during coronary artery balloon angioplasty procedures, whereas circulation of red blood cells is obstructed during such procedures. Low affinity mutant hemoglobin may also be useful as a perfusion component in organ preservation prior to transplantation or as a mammalian cell culture additive.

Possible low affinity mutants are discussed in detail, by way of example and not of limitation, in Table 1 (natural low affinity hemoglobin mutants) and Table 2 (candidate non-naturally occurring low affinity hemoglobin mutants) of Hoffman, et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,588. Low affinity mutants of particular interest are the Presbyterian (beta Lys¹⁰⁸) beta Phe⁶³, beta Ile⁶⁷, and Kansas (beta Thr¹⁰²) mutants.

An unexpected and surprising change in oxygen binding characteristics of hemoglobin was observed upon replacement of the N-terminal valine with methionine. Hemoglobin A, purified from blood a P₅₀ value of 4.03 with N=2.8 when measured at 25° C. DesFX-Fab produced in E. coli, a hemoglobin identical to A except for the addition of a methionine at the N-termini of the alpha and beta chains, has essentially the same P₅₀ and N values. Thus, the addition of a methionine, without altering the adjacent valine residue, has little or no effect on oxygen binding. On the other hand, a higher P₅₀ value, 6.6, was observed for desVal-Hab produced in E. coli, a hemoglobin in which the normal N-terminal valine of each chain was replaced with. methionine. Cooperativity, as measured by N, was virtually the same, however, for all three molecules.

A similar comparison was made for two hemoglobins each containing the Presbyterian mutation, one produced in E. coli and one in yeast. The E. coli hemoglobin was constructed with a Des-Val alpha chain, i.e., the N-terminus had the normal valine replaced with methionine oxygen binding was characterized by P₅₀=19.8, N=2.5 at 25° C. and by P₅₀=34.5 and N=2.5 at 37° C. The corresponding yeast coding region begins with an additional methionine codon in front of the normal valine codon. Because this initial methionine is removed post translationally in vivo, the purified hemoglobin has a normal N-terminal valine. For this molecule, P₅₀=23 to 25 and N=2.5 when measured at 37° C. Thus, in the above instances, the replacement of an N-terminal valine with an N- terminal methionine increased the P₅₀ value. Under physiological conditions, it is expected that the genetically fused Presbyterian hemoglobin produced in E. coli will deliver 20-30% more oxygen than the similar hemoglobin, with its altered N-terminus, produced in yeast.

High Affinity Mutants

The term “high affinity hemoglobin-like protein” refers to a hemoglobin-like protein having a P₅₀ which is at least 10% less than the P₅₀ of cell free hemoglobin A_(o) under the same conditions.

High affinity mutant hemoglobin may have utility in certain situations. For example, perfluorocarbon-based blood substitute preparations are under clinical study for enhancement of radiation therapy and certain chemotherapy treatments of solid tumors (Dowling, S., Fischer, J. J., and Rockwell, S. (1991) Biomat. Art. Cells Immobil. Biotech, 19, 277; Herman, T. S. and Teicher, B. A. (1991) Biomat. Art. Cells and Immobil. Biotech, 19, 395, Holden, S. A., Teicher, B. A. and Herman, T. S. (1991) Biomat. Art. Cells and Immobil. Biotech, 19, 399.) The basis of these investigations is the fact that oxygen is a required component of the cell toxicity action of radiation and certain chemotherapy reagents. Solid tumors frequently exhibit extremely low partial oxygen pressure in the interior of the tumor, rendering therapy inefficient. Perfluorocarbon-based oxygen-carrying solutions appear to dramatically enhance certain tumor therapies, and hemoglobin- based blood substitutes are expected to have a similar utility. It is likely that cell-free hemoglobin unlike whole red blood cells, will be able to penetrate the interior region of tumors for delivery of oxygen. Actual percent of oxygen released by a cell-free hemoglobin preparation is not a direct function of P₅₀ but rather depends on the shape of the oxygen equilibrium binding curve between the two pressures representing the partial oxygen pressure of the lungs (where oxygen is loaded onto hemoglobin) and the partial pressure of the tissue where oxygen is unloaded. Therefore, it is possible that a high affinity mutant hemoglobin would be preferred as a tumor therapy adjuvant. A high affinity hemoglobin would retain its bound oxygen throughout the normal circulatory system, where partial oxygen pressure remains relatively high, but release its oxygen in the extremely oxygen-depleted tumor interior. Normal or low affinity hemoglobin might have less oxygen available for release by the time it reaches the interior of the tumor.

Naturally occurring high affinity hemoglobin mutants are also known, see Bunn and Forget, Table 14-1, and candidate non-naturally occurring high affinity hemoglobin mutants may be proposed in view of the known mutants and hemoglobin structure. Particularly preferred high affinity mutants are set forth in Table 400.

It should be noted that genetic fusion and crosslinking can affect oxygen binding affinity.

Cysteine Mutations and Disulfide Bridge Formation

Cysteine mutations are of value for increasing the stability of tetramer (See U.S. Pat. No. 5,028,588 and Ser. No. 07/443,950, abandoned. They also facilitate constructing poly(tetrameric) (n>=2) hemoglobins. This is because the cysteines on adjacent tetramers (including pseudotetramers) can be oxidized to form a disulfide bridge, covalently coupling the tetramers. In addition, the thiol groups of cysteines may be reacted with a variety of crosslinking agents.

A variety of sites are available for introduction of cysteines into a hemoglobin-like protein.

The criteria governing site selection are: (1) the-mutation does not affect functionality; (2) the side chain is accessible to water in oxy or deoxy structure; (3) the site -should lie on the surface of the folded protein; (4) the sulfhydryl of the side chain should extend away from the surface rather than toward the interior of the molecule; (5) the site should be in a portion of the molecule that is not directly involved in the R→T transition; (6) the change should be in a portion of the molecule that does not have a tightly fixed position (such regions generally give indistinct X-ray diffraction patterns); (7) the mutations will not destroy the local secondary structure, i.e., avoid pro→cys mutations, which might, result in a refolding problem; and (8) if possible, a conservative change should be made such as ser→cys or ala>cys. A mutation does not necessarily have to meet all of the above requirements to be useful. For example, one might envision a site that is involved in the R→T transition (cf. 5 above) but confers a beneficial change in P₅₀ (cf. 1 above) because of that involvement. The most important considerations are that the mutation does not abolish O₂ binding, before or after crosslink formations, and that the cysteine is accessible for participation in the desired crosslinking reaction.

Candidate sites on the alpha surface include: his72, asn 78, asn68, ala71, thr67, lys7, lys11, thr8, ala12, thr118, lys16, ala45, glu116, gly15, his112, thr24, glu23, lys60, lys56, his50, gly51, glu53, ser49, asp47, gln54, his45, lys90, ala82, lys61, ala19, his20, asp85, ser81, asp75, asp74, lys139, asp64, and gly18 (total 40 amino acids).

Candidate sites on the beta surfaces includes: asp79, his2, leu3, thr4, glu6, ser9, thr12, ala13, gly16, lys17, val18, asn19, val20, asp21, glu22, lys65, ser72, ala76, his77, asp79, asn80, gly83, ala86, thr87, glu90, lys95, lys59, glu43, ser44, asp47, ser49, thr50, ala53, asp52, lys61, glu121, lys120, thr123, lys66, asp73, ala62, his116, his117 (total 45 amino acids).

There are a number of naturally occurring mutants which already show mutations at these sites. These are listed below:

Residues Region Mutation 19 AB1 ALA->GLU ALA->ASP 54 E3 GLN->ARG GLN->GLU 71 E20 ALA->GLU 75 EF4 ASP->GLY ASP->HIS ASP->TYR ASP->ASN 81 F2 SER->CYS 47 CE5 ASP->GLY ASP->HIS ASP->ASN

If the pseudo-octamer (n=2) is formed by directly linking two pseudo-tetramers via a disulfide bond, the halflife in serum may be influenced by the rate at which endogenous serum small molecule thiols (such as glutathione) reduce the disulfide bond. The mechanism of these reactions involves the thiolate anion as the actual reducing species (Creighton, T. E. (1978) Proc. Biophys. Molec. Biol., 33:259-260; Creighton, T. E. (1975) J. Mol. Biol., 96:767; Creighton, T. E. (1977). J. Mol. Biol., 113:313). Thus the rate of reduction will be a function of the molecular electrostatic environment in the vicinity of the disulfide bond. A slower rate of reduction would be predicted if the disulfide was located. In an electrostatically negative environment, due to the repulsion of the thiolate anion. In the case of glutathione, even the unreactive transient protonated species has a net negative charge and would be repulsed, thus further reducing the rate of disulfide reduction.

A surface or near-surface amino acid residue of di- alpha or di-beta hemoglobin that is located in close proximity to a negatively charged surface residue might therefore be a good choice for location of a single cysteine mutation in the-di-alpha or di-beta polypeptide. Although formation of the initial disulfide bond between two such cysteines might also be slower because of repulsion between the negative charges on the two hemoglobin molecules in the vicinity of the cysteines, the reaction could be facilitated by use of high salt, or high pH during the in vitro bond formation reaction. If carried out under deoxy conditions in a redox buffer, the reaction might also be facilitated by temperature elevation.

Preferred sites for cys mutations proximal to negative charged residues

alpha ser49 near asp47; naturally occurring ser49 to arg has normal O₂ affinity

alpha his20 near glu23; naturally occurring his20 to tyr, gln, arg have no known undesirable properties

alpha lys16 near glu116; naturally occurring lys to glu has normal O₂ affinity

alpha his50 near glu30; naturally occurring his50 to asp has no known undesirable properties

beta thr50 near asp52; naturally occurring thr50 to lys has no known undesirable properties

beta lys65 near asp21

beta asn19 near asp21

Surface or near-surface, cysteine mutations in general are not expected to have major effects on the functionality of the hemoglobin pseudotetramer. Cysteine mutations would not be expected to significantly destabilize alpha helices, and surface residues are not directly involved in the oxygen binding properties of hemoglobin. Most surface residues undergo considerable motion and are not tightly constrained. It should also be noted that because of protein breathing motions, the cysteine side chain would not necessarily have to point directly into solution to be accessible for disulfide bond formation.

In addition to the use in construction of a pseudo- octamer, there may be additional uses of surface cysteine mutations, These include: (1) construction of multimeric hemoglobins (n>2) by use of synthetic sulfhydryl reactive peptides with more than two reactive sites; (2) surface cysteine residues could be used to attach chelates that bind radioisotopes for imaging; and (3) surface cysteines could be used to attach bio-active peptides or other therapeutic agents to increase their circulating half-life, or target their delivery. If the attachment of the drug were via a disulfide, the rate of release of the peptide from its carrier could be controlled by neighboring residues. For uses (2) and (3), restriction to one cysteine per di-alpha or di-beta is unnecessary.

It may be desirable to eliminate the cysteine at beta 93 of normal human hemoglobin so that it cannot participate in polymerization reactions. This cysteine may be replaced by serine, alanine or threonine, for example. Other wild-type cysteines may also be replaced if desired, but it is unlikely that they participate in crosslinking reactions after the tetramer is formed.

Mutations to Reduce Haptoglobin Binding

It is presently believed that haptoglobin binding plays a role in the catabolism of hemoglobin. If so, intravascular retention of hemoglobin might be enhanced by mutations which inhibit haptoglobin binding. Oxyhemoglobin dissociates into alpha-beta dimers, which are then bound by haptoglobin. While much of the binding energy is associated with binding to residues which are buried in the tetramer but exposed in the dimer, it appears that there are also secondary binding sites on the surface of the tetramer. Though the mechanism is not clear, the haptoglobin-bound dimers are transported to Kupffer cells in the liver, where they are catabolized.

It would be most desirable to mutate sites which both are involved in haptoglobin binding and which are suitable for attachment of another tetramer. Candidate mutation sites are in the alpha chain of normal human alpha globin, residues 1, 6, 74, 82, 85, 89, 90, 93, 118, 120-127 and 139-141, and in the beta chain, residues 2, 11-40 and 131-146. It is unlikely that haptoglobin binding can be blocked merely by single substitution mutation of one genetically encoded amino acid to another. However, if the above residues are replaced by a cysteine, and the cysteine is crosslinked to another molecule which is significantly larger than the usual amino acid side chain, the steric effect is magnified considerably and haptoglobin binding may be inhibited. Of course, to retain polymerization control, these mutations should be made asymmetrically in a pseudooligomeric polypeptide so that there is only one crosslink per tetramer.

It is known that even covalently crosslinked hemoglobins can be processed by haptoglobin; this is thought to be the result of the “breathing” of the tetramer in its oxy form sufficiently to allow the haptoglobin access to the normally buried residues of the subunit. interfaces in question. This may be prevented by tightly crosslinking the globin subunits so dissociation will not occur within the time span of interest. Unlike the mutations discussed above, these mutations should be made in all of the indicated subunits for maximum efficiency.

beta37→Cys and alpha92→Cys

beta40→Cys and alpha92→Cys

beta97→Cys and alpha41→Cys

The above mutations all lie at the alpha₁beta₂ and beta₁alpha₂ interfaces and lock these interfaces shut so that “breathing” does not allow haptoglobin access.

“Breathing” may also be inhibited by low oxygen affinity mutations; the tetramer then spends more time in the deoxy state, which is not susceptible to haptoglobin attack.

Pseudomeric Globin-Like Polypeptides and Pseudotetrameric Hemoglobin-Like Proteins Useful as Intermediates in Preparation of Multimeric Hemoglobin-Like Proteins

In the liganded form, hemoglobin readily dissociates into αβ dimers which are small enough to pass through the renal glomeruli, and Hb is thereby rapidly removed from the circulatory system. Intravenous administration of hemoglobin in amounts far less than that needed to support oxygen transport can result in long term kidney damage or failure. Ackers, G. K. and Halvorson, H. R., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. (USA) 71, 4312-16 (1974); Bunn, H. F., Jandl, J., J. Exp. Med. 129, 925-34 (1969). If dissociation into dimers is prevented, there is an increase in intravascular half life and a substantial reduction off renal toxicity. Lee, R., Atsumi, N., Jackebs, E., Austen, W., Vlahakes, G., J. Surg. Res. 47,S407-11 (1989). The hemoglobin-like proteins of the present invention cannot dissociate into α,β-dimers without the breakage of a peptide bond and should have the advantages of a longer intravascular half life and reduced renal toxicity.

In the crystal structures of both deoxyhemoglobin and the oxyhemoglobin the N-terminal Val residue for one ac subunit and the C-terminal Arg residue of the other α subunit are only between 2 and 6 Å apart, and are bound to one another through a salt bridge in deoxyhemoglobin. Fermi, G., Perutz, M., Shaanan, B., Fourme, R., J. Mol. Biol., 175, 159-74 (1984); Shaanan, B., J. Mol. Biol. 171, 31-59 (1983). This distance could be spanned by one or two amino acids. One extra amino acid can be added to the C-terminal Arg residue of the α subunits by trypsin catalyzed reverse hydrolysis without significantly altering the oxygen binding properties. Nagai, K., Enoki, Y., Tomita, S. and Teshina, T., J. Biol. Chem., 257, 1622-25 (1982) Preferably the di-alpha linker (if one is used) consists of 1 to 3 amino acids which may be the same or different. A Mono-Gly linker is especially preferred. In designing such a linker, it is important to recognize that it is desirable to use one or more amino acids that will flexibly connect the two subunits, transforming them into domains of a single di-alpha globin polypeptide.

The preparation of “di-beta” mutants is also contemplated. The distance between the N-terminus of one beta subunit and the C-terminus of the other is 18.4 Å in the deoxy configuration and 5.2 Å in the oxy form. Preferably, the di- beta linker consists of 2 to 9 amino acids which may be the same or different. Glycine amino acids are particularly preferred.

The length of the (-gly-)_(n) genetically fused link between the N-terminus of one beta chain (at beta₁, 1 Val) and the C terminus of the second beta chain (beta₂, 146 His) in di-beta hemoglobin may range between 1 and approximately 9 glycines. In the oxy and deoxy crystal structures of human hemoglobin A_(o), the distance between these termini is 5.22 Å and 17.93 Å respectively (from the N-terminal nitrogen to the C terminal carbon of the carboxylate). A single glycine linker,.which is a little less than 4 Å in length, may come close to linking the two termini in the oxy structure, however, it is expected that this linker will fall ⁻14 Å short in the deoxy structure. Significantly more perturbation of the deoxy structure vs the oxy structure might be anticipated with this linker. Some alterations in the oxygen binding properties may be caused by deletion of the positive and negative charges at the two termini and their inclusion in the amide bond. In addition, the linker molecule itself may destabilize the oxy structure less than the deoxy structure, and thus lead to a relative increase in oxygen affinity. Likewise, two glycines inserted as linkers may also differentially stabilize the oxy structure and hence relatively increase the oxygen affinity by the same mechanism described above.

When the number of linking glycines is increased to 5, the linker should just span the cleft between the beta chain termini in the deoxy structure, and, moreover, insert added steric bulk between the termini in the oxy structure, thus leading to a relative stabilization of deoxy (or destabilization of oxy) and perhaps resulting in a concomitant decrease in oxygen affinity. Due to the large space between the beta termini in the deoxy (but not the oxy structure), addition of glycine linkers in the range of 6-9 may further stabilize the oxy structure and, in the same manner, further decrease oxygen affinity.

A third form of globin pseudodimer is one comprising both alpha and beta globin domains. A possible route to fusing alpha1 to beta2 and so stabilizing hemoglobin against α₁β₁/α₂β₂ dimer formation, is to fuse the alpha1 C-terminal residue to the N-terminal residue of beta2 C helix, creating a new C-terminus at the end of the beta2 B helix. The original beta N terminus, Val1, would be fused to the original beta subunit C-terminal residue, His146, by means of an intervening new section of protein, thus creating a continuous polypeptide chain comprising the alpha and beta subunits of different dimers. This chain may be described as follows: (des-Val) α(1-14) -Gly₃-β(35-146)-Gly₁₋₃-Ala₁₃-Gly₁₋₃-β(1-34) SEQ ID NO:27; see FIG. 6.

Inspection of the structure of human deoxyhemoglobin using a molecular graphics computer indicates the following relevant distances. The distance between the Alpha1 Arg141 carboxyl carbon and Beta2 Tyr35 N-atoms is approximately 8.6 Angstroms. A fully extended linear triglycine peptide measured approximately 10.1 Angstroms from the N to C terminal residues. This suggests that three glycine residues could be employed to span the distance between the Arg141 and Tyr35 residues with a minimum of unfavorable steric interactions and maximum conformational freedom. The distance requirements could be different in oxyhemoglobin, and if so, the sequence of the fusion peptide could be altered to best accommodate the requirements of both structures.

In human deoxyhemoglobin, the distance between the Beta2 His146 carboxyl carbon and the Beta2 Val1 nitrogen atoms is approximately 25 Angstroms. A right handed 3.6 Alpha helix constructed from a linear sequence of 13 Alanine residues was found to measure 22 Angstroms from N to C terminus. With the addition of one to three glycine residues at each end of this helix (to give Gly_(n)(Ala)₁₃Gly_(n) where n=1 to 3) residues 130-148 of SEQ ID NO:27, it could span the required-distance and have sufficient conformational flexibility to avoid serious tertiary packing conflicts. Additionally, the amino acid sequence of the helix could be altered to introduce favorable hydrogen bonds and salt bridges between the new helix and the Beta2 helix against which it would pack in the folded protein. Such interactions could aid stabilization of the engineered protein.

Glycine is the preferred amino acid in the linkers, since it is known to be quite flexible, Cantor and Schimmel, Biophysical Chemistry, part 1, pp. 266-9 (1980), and also allows chains into which it is incorporated to assume a more compact structure. However, the residues comprising the linker are not limited to glycines; other residues may be included instead of or in addition to glycine, such as alanine, serine, or threonine. Since these amino acids have a more restricted conformational space in a protein, they will likely result in more rigid linking chains, and hence have a more pronounced effect on the relative stabilization/destabilization of the oxy/deoxy structures.

It should be understood that the minimum and maximum number of amino acids in the linker is a function of the distance to be spanned in both the oxy or deoxy forms, the amino acids chosen, and the propensity of the particular amino acid sequence to form a secondary structure. While a random coil is usually preferred, it is not required, and a linker with a large number of amino acids in a secondary structure may have the same span as a random coil linker with fewer amino acids. A linker may comprise,.e.g., 1-3 glycines, followed-by a sequence having a secondary structure, followed by 1-3 more glycines. The translation per residue, in angstroms is 1.9 for polyproline I, 3.12 for polyproline II, 3.1 for polyglycine II, 3.4 for an antiparallel β sheet, 3.2 for a parallel β-sheet, 1.5 for a right handed a-helix, 2.0 for a 310 helix, and 1.15 for a π helix. In a fully extended chain, the maximum translation per residue is 3.63 Å if the repeating units are staggered and 3.8 Å if the peptide bond, is trans.

The number of amino acids in the linker may be such that a formation of a secondary structure, such as an alpha helix or a beta-sheet, is undesirable, as the span is reduced. Certain amino acids have a greater tendency to participate in such structures. See Chou and Fasman, Biochemistry, 13:222-245 (1974), incorporated by reference. The amino acids are ranked in order of decreasing participation below. The preferred linker amino acids are boldfaced. Glycine is the most suitable amino acid for this purpose. The most preferred di-alpha linkers are Gly or Gly-Gly.

Alpha Helix Beta Sheet Formers Formers Glu (1.53) Met (1.67) Ala (1.45) Val (1.65) Leu (1.34) Hα Ile (1.60) Hβ His (1.24) Cys (1.30) Met (1.20) Tyr (1.29) Gln (1.17) Phe (1.28) Val (1.14) Gln (1.23) Trp (1.14) Leu (1.22) Phe (1.12) hα Thr (1.20) Lys (1.07) Trp (1.19) hβ Ile (1.00) Ala (0.97) Iβ Asp (0.98) Arg (0.90) Thr (0.82) Gly (0.81) Arg (0.79) Asp (0.80) iβ Ser (0.79) Lys (0.74) Cys (0.77) iα Ser (0.72) Asn (0.73) His (0.71) Tyr (0.61) bα Asn (0.65) Pro (0.59) Pro (0.62) bβ Gly (0.53) Bα Glu (0.26) Bβ (The letter symbols are Hα, strong α former; hα, α former; Iα; weak α former; iα, α indifferent; bα, α breaker; and Bα strong α breaker. The βsymbols are analogous. Trp is bβ if near the C-terminal of a β-sheet region.)

The alpha helix of a polypeptide chain comprises an average of 3.6 residues per turn. In globular proteins, the average length is about 17 Å, corresponding to 11 residues or 3 helix turns. In alpha and beta globin, the helices range in length from 7 to 21 amino acids (A.A.). The beta pleated sheet comprises 2.3 residues per turn; the average length is about 20 Å or 6 residues.

Chou and Fasman define an alpha helix nucleus as a hexapeptide containing four helix forming residues and not more than one helix breaker, and a beta sheet nucleus as a pentapeptide containing three beta sheet forming residues and not more than one sheet breaker.

The amino acid sequence in the vicinity of the di-alpha linker is as follows:

residue # 138 139 140 141 1 2 3 4 AA Ser Lys Tyr Arg —(XXX)_(n)— Val Leu Ser Pro (SEQ ID NO:4) (SEQ ID NO:5) Helix Not H21 HC1 HC2 HC3 NA1 NA2 A1 A2 Helix Pot 079 107 061 079 114 134 079 059 Sheet Pot 072 074 129 090 165 122 072 062 (Note: Helix- and sheet forming potentials have been multiplied by 100 for typographical reasons.)

The di-alpha linker is preferably only 1-3 amino acids. Thus, it can form an alpha helix only in conjunction with the linker “termini”. A one or two residue linker, even if composed of amino acids with strong secondary structure propensities, would be unlikely to assume an alpha helix or beta sheet configuration in view of the disruptive effect of, e.g., Arg 141 or Ser 3. If the linker is 3 residues long, it would be preferable that no more than one residue be a strong alpha helix former, unless the linker also included a strong alpha helix breaker.

The amino acid sequence in the vicinity of the di-beta linker may impose more stringent constraints.

143 144 145 146 1 2 3 4 His Lys Tyr His —(XXX)_(n)— Val His Leu Thr (SEQ ID NO:6) (SEQ ID NO:7) H21 HC1 HC2 HC3 NA1 NA2 NA3 A1 124 107 061 124 114 124 134 082 071 074 129 071 165 071 122 120

The di-beta linker is likely to be longer (preferably 1-9 A.A.) and therefore more susceptible to secondary structure formation. If secondary structure formation is not desired, it is desirable that the amino acid adjacent to Val-1 be an alpha helix breaker (e.g., Glycine) in view of alpha-helix propensities of Val-His-Leu. More generally, it is desirable that the linker not contain (or cooperate with the proximately linked amino acids to form) an alpha helix nucleus or beta sheet nucleus.

When secondary structure is not desired, amino acids with a high propensity toward alpha helix formation may be used in the linker if accompanied by “helix breaking” amino acids. Similarly, Beta sheet formation may be prevented by “sheet disrupting” amino acids.

Of course, prediction of secondary structure using Chou and Fasman's approach has its limitations and the ultimate test of the acceptability of a linker is whether or not the di-alpha or di-beta hemoglobin has the desired affinity for oxygen. In particular, a poly-alanine linker, despite its supposed propensity to alpha-helix formation, may well be of value since the alanine group is compact and therefore the linker should be quite flexible if secondary structure does not form.

In an especially preferred embodiment, di-alpha and beta globin genes are combined into a single polycistronic operon. The use of a polycistronic operon is not, however, necessary to practice the present invention, and the alpha (or di-alpha) and beta (or di-beta) globin genes may be expressed from separate promoters which may be the same or different.

While the preferred “genetically fused hemoglobin” of the present invention is one comprising a di-alpha and/or di-beta globin, other globin chains may be genetically fused and used in the production of multimers of hemoglobins of species other than Hgb A1 (α₂β₂)

Pseudo-Octameric (Ditetrameric) Hemoglobin-like Proteins With Disulfide Bridges

The ability to produce pseudotetrameric recombinant hemoglobins consisting of a single dialpha polypeptide and two beta chains (or a dibeta polypeptide and two alpha chains) provides a unique opportunity to create an asymmetric pseudotetramer from the normally symmetric pseudotetramer. Because the two alpha globin domains are expressed as a single polypeptide, it is possible to alter one of the alpha globin domains without altering the other. The result is a protein that, in its final folded state, contains two different alpha globin domains in a strict 1:1 ratio. This type of asymmetric hemoglobin molecule, with its unique chemical properties, cannot be easily constructed by any other method. A preferred embodiment of this invention would involve use of site-directed mutagenesis to substitute a cysteine residue in one of the two alpha globin domains of a di-alpha hemoglobin such as SGE1.1 (a di-alpha hemoglobin with a beta chain Presbyterian mutation also denoted rHB1.1) such that the cysteine would be on the surface of the folded recombinant hemoglobin molecule. A homogeneous preparation of pseudo-octameric hemoglobin could then be formed through interhemoglobin linkage of two pseudotetramers either directly by simple oxidation of purified pseudotetramers or by reaction with a bridging molecule (FIG. 3).

Although direct formation of a disulfide bond between two “mono cys” tetramers is desirable in order to avoid the need for chemical crosslinking, naturally occurring reducing agents may reduce the disulfide bond in vivo at a significant rate. Preliminary experiments suggest that the rate of reduction of the bond may be influenced by the location of the cysteine mutation on the surface of the hemoglobin.

The surface cysteine mutants (MW=64 kDa) can be oxidized to the disulfide-linked dimer under oxidative conditions. This can be accomplished by stirring a concentrated solution of the expressed protein at pH 8 under pure oxygen at 4° C. or room temperature in the dark. Trace levels of transition metal ions such as Cu⁺² may be added to level below 1 uM to catalyze the oxidation (1). Formation of the 128 kDa octamer can be monitored by gel filtration. Saturation of the solution with oxygen at elevated pH should minimize autooxidation of recombinant hemoglobin.

An alternative procedure, which may be the preferred method of catalyzing this reaction, involves the use of redox buffers such as reduced and oxidized glutathione, or reduced and oxidized dithiothreitol (2). This catalysis of the reaction through disulfide interchange may be necessary to control trace transition metal catalysis (3). A second, similar approach involves conversion of the surface cysteines in the 65 kDa species to sulfonates before purification (to avoid 128 kDa species formation during purification), followed by conversion to the disulfide-linked 128 kDa species with reduced glutathione (2).

(1) Freedman, R. B. and Hillson, D. A. (1980) “Formation of Disulfide Bonds”In: The Enzymology of Post Translational Modification of Proteins, Vol. 1, p. 157 pp. (Academic Press).

(2) DiMarchi, R., et al. (1988) Chemical synthesis of human epidermal growth factor (EGF) and human type a transforming growth factor (TGFa) IN: Peptides: Chemistry and Biology. (G. R. Marshall, ed.) pp. 202-203 (Leiden:ESCOM).

(3) Creighton, TE (1978) Experimental studies of protein folding and unfolding. Prog. Biophys. Molec. Biol. 33:231-297

Multimeric Hemoglobin-Like Proteins With Other Intercysteine Linkages

It is also possible, of course, to couple two mono cys molecules with a honobifunctional crosslinking reagent resulting in linkage via nonreducible bonds. The degree of polymerization is still controlled by the use of the mono cys di-alpha or di-beta Hgb starting material.

By using bi-, tri-, tetra-, hexa-, or octa-functional crosslinkers several properties of multimeric hemoglobin which may contribute to longer serum half life can be controlled. The crosslinkers can be designed to give a nonreducible bond between two tetramers, to yield high molecular weight multimers of n>2 psuedo-tetramers (e.g. dodecamers, etc.) and/or to drop the overall isoelectric point of a hemoglobin octamer to further increase its half life.

Correlations of molecular weight with serum half life for proteins such as IL-2, demonstrate that a significantly longer half life may be expected as the molecular weight of a protein increases, particularly above the renal filtration limit of 50-70 kDa. However, a factor potentially limiting the half life of multimeric hemoglobin formed by a disulfide link between tetramers is reduction of the cys-cys disulfide bond by endogenous thiol-reducing agents found in the serum. Estimates of small molecule thiol levels in plasma vary from 17 μM to 5 μM. The major species is reduced glutathione. Other thiol compounds in plasma include cysteine, homocysteine, and gamma-glutamyl cysteine. Thus, small molecule plasma thiols are available for reduction of disulfide bonds. This may be reflected in the diminished half life seen with antibody-ricin A chains conjugates linked by regular disulfides (6.7 hrs) relative to conjugates linked with sterically hindered, and thus less reducible, alpha-methyl disulfides (42.5 hours).

Thus, in one embodiment, the octameric hemoglobin features a nonreducible sulfur-containing crosslink such as a thioether bond or thiol-maleiimide adduct. These may substantially extend the multimer half life. Simple homobifunctional crosslinkers or polyethylene glycol (peg) derivatives would likely be useful for this purpose (see below). The reaction of a bifunctional cysteine-specific crosslinker with a mono-cys di-alpha or di-beta Hgb should limit the products of the reaction to a dumbbell-like octameric hemoglobin and unreacted hemoglobin. The reaction should be stoichiometric when the Hgb and crosslinker are present at high concentrations and the Hgb is present in a slight excess over the crosslinker maleiimides at pH 6.5-7.0. Further, there should not be substantial interference by reaction with globin lysines. The preferential reactivity of the thiols to lysines can be roughly calculated as the product of their molar ratios and the ratio of the intrinsic reactivity of a maleiimide to thiols versus amines. This product is ca. [1 cys/40 lys]×[1000]=25 at pH 7. The side products would still be octamers, with one attachment site being a secondary amine and thus might well be functionally equivalent to the S-crosslinked octamers. Hydrolysis of the maleiimide adduct at pH 7 would be slow, and the ring opening would leave the crosslink intact.

The reaction of the thioether RC(═O)CH₂I with the sulfhydryl-bearing protein (R′SH) results in the crosslink RC(═O)CH₂—S—R′. The reaction of the maleiimide with the protein results in the addition of the R′SH across the double bond of the five-membered maleiimide ring, yielding a thiomaleiimide adduct.

The following are examples of homobifunctional crosslinkers that may form metabolically stable crosslinks between monocysteine pseudo tetramers:

1) 1,2-bis-(2-iodoethoxy)ethane

2) 4,4′-dimaleiimidylbenzene or N,N′-p-phenylenedimaleiimide

3) N,N′-bis-(3-maleiimido-propionyl)-2-hydroxy-1,3-propane diamine.

Longer half lives may also be obtained by increasing the apparent solution molecular weight by simply lengthening the distance between the two linked tetramers using a long crosslinking agent. The use of some potentially novel polyethylene glycol derivatives as homobifunctional crosslinkers, reacting with SGE1.1 mono-cys, may provide one mechanism for significantly increasing the molecular weight of octameric hemoglobin by virtue of the length of the crosslinker alone.

A suitable crosslinker for this purpose is

maleiimido-CH₂CH₂C(═O)(OCH₂CH₂)_(n)OC(═)CH₂CH₂-maleiimido.

The length may be adjusted by variation of n. A few examples are given below.

Structure Max Length Source n = 22   ⁻49Å peg −1000  n = 76  ⁻166Å peg −3350  n = 227 ⁻499Å peg −10000

Homobifunctional N-hydroxysuccinimide-activated peg has been used previously to derivatize hemoglobin. Yabuki, et al., Transfusion, 30:516 (1990). This reaction resulted in a polydisperse mixture of monomeric, dimeric, and trimeric species with an average stoichiometry of peg/hemoglobin of 6.2. However, 83% of the hemoglobin derivatized by peg was not crosslinked to another hemoglobin molecule. Control of the peg-derivatization of wild-type hemoglobin was not possible because there is no site-directed labeling of the hemoglobin starting material.

In contrast, the combination of SGE 1.1 mono-cys starting material and a peg crosslinker should yield a substantially monodisperse dumbbell (pseudo-octameric) product. The site-direction of the crosslinker attachment site should result in precise control of the apparent molecular weight, which will depend on the size of the crosslinker. Moreover, careful control of the site of the cys mutation on the surface of the recombinant hemoglobin should ensure that the functionality of the derivatized hemoglobin is maintained.

Higher Multimeric Hemoglobins

The above crosslinkers all involve the attachment of one tetramer at each end of a crosslinker. It may be advantageous to attach more than two tetramers to a single crosslinker to yield more oxygen-carrying capacity and to further increase the molecular weight.

A multimeric hemoglobin may be assembled with the aid of one or more linker peptides, each having a controlled number of reactive sites to which a cysteine residue of a hemoglobin tetramer or pseudotetramer nay be attached, directly or indirectly.

With a peptide linker of considerable length, there is the concern that it will be degraded by serum proteases, thus degrading the multimeric hemoglobin into its component tetramers, This problem, if significant, may be remedied by use of a peptide linker which is less susceptible to proteolysis. A non-exhaustive list of such linkers would include peptides composed of D-amino acids, peptides with stable, extended, secondary structures, and branched peptides.

In the case of peptides composed of D-amino acids, use of D-Glu or D-Asp is particularly preferred.

A number of stable, extended, secondary structures are known. The simplest is possibly polyproline. Another example is the 2-stranded coiled coil, in which two peptide chains intertwine. A 4-helical or a 4-stranded coiled coil are also possibilities.

Branched structures, such as those obtained by derivation of the secondary amino group of lysine, are typically resistant to protease.

If desired, several of these approaches may be combined. For example, several coiled coils may lead off a branched structure, or D-amino acids may be incorporated into a coiled coil.

A hypothetical 4-tetramer coiled-coil linker complex is shown in FIG. 4a. Design and synthesis of these coiled coil peptides has already been explored (for an example see Cohen and Perry, Proteins, 7:1-15 (1990)). The rationale for a coiled coil is that two intertwined alpha helices will be less sensitive to proteolytic cleavage than a single naked secondary structure like an extended peptide (rapidly cleaved by proteases), an alpha helix or a beta sheet.

Using molecular modeling, an internal disulfide may be designed in the center of a bi-functional coiled coil linker such that the strands are covalently attached. This should stabilize formation of the correct coiled coil crosslinker before mono-cys di-alpha or di-beta Hgb (e.g., sge1.1 cys) is attached. Additionally, a tri-functional crosslinker can be stabilized by use of a orthogonally-protected lysine (lys-FMOC) rather than a disulfide in the center of a proteolytically inert secondary structure. A polyproline helix can be used as the linker, and can be stabilized by branching the synthesis at the lys-FMOC after removal of the side chain. The three remaining lysines in the branched peptide would then be iodoacetylated to site-specifically attach a thiol-reactive group using either iodoacetic anhydride or N-succinimidyliodo-acetate and subsequently reacted with sge1.1-cys. An analogous tetra-functional crosslinker could be synthesized by inserting 1-2 prolines between two internal branching lysines to rotate them such that the two internal branching chains growing off the orthogonally protected lysines head- in (nearly) opposite directions. Analogous structures could be made using D-glutamate(E) or D-aspartate(D) to provide protease resistance, and these would form an extended polyanionic chain at pH 7.

The sequence of a hypothetical alpha-helical coiled coil is modified from that given in Semchuck, et al., in Peptides: Chemistry, Structure and Biology; 566 (Rivier and Marshall, eds:1990), to leave only two lysines (K) at each end:

Ac-Lys-Cys-Ala-Glu-Leu-Glu-Gly-Arg-Leu-Glu-Ala-Leu-Glu-Gly-Arg-Leu-Glu-Ala-Leu-Glu-Gly-Arg-Leu-Glu-Ala-Leu-Glu-Gly-Arg-Leu-Glu-Ala-Leu-Glu-Gly-Lys-Leu-amide (SEQ ID NO: 8).

This coiled coil should have about 10 turns of a helix and thus will be ca. 54 Å long, allowing two tetramers to attach on each side without steric interference. The exact sequence and length to allow appropriate placement of 4 tetramers would depend on the results of molecular modeling.

Suggested trifunctional and tetrafunctional crosslinkers are diagrammed below.

See also FIG. 4(a).

Another possibility is an 8-hemoglobin complex (FIG. 4b. The rationale for considering this sort of complex is that it may be the way to obtain a very long half-life, due to the extreme stability of the “crosslinker” and the substantially higher molecular weight of the complex. The crosslinker might take the form of a doubly branched coiled coil, with a Lys(FMOC) replacing an Arg in the middle of the chain to allow the branching, and with a polyproline helix or other protease resistant secondary structure comprising the branching moiety. This structure could allow attachment of 6 SGE1.1s per crosslinker. Alternatively, a 4-helical bundle protein (See FIG. 4(c)) or 4-stranded coiled-coil such as those synthesized by DeGrado, Science, 243:622 (1989), with each helix in the 4-helical bundle containing the consensus sequence Gly-Glu-Leu-Glu-Glu-Leu-Leu-Lys-Lys-Leu-Lys-Glu-Leu-Leu-Lys-Gly (SEQ ID NO:9) the helices being linked by three PRR or RPR loops, could be utilized as a suitable core for the linker. This is one of the most stable proteins known, with a G=−22 kcal/mole separating the folded from the unfolded state. Each helix would be 4+ turns or ca. 22 Å long. Since this may not be enough room to fit two hemoglobins with one anchored at each end of the helix, they might have to be attached to different faces of the same helix, to lysines placed at each end of the polar face of each helix. Each helix is amphipathic; this should allow relative freedom to have a total of 8 lysines (and no more) and to change the remaining lysines to arginines. At least two of the i, i+4 salt bridges per helix would be retained for stability of the protein. Attachment of an externally crosslinkable cysteine-bearing tetramer could be via iodoacetylation of the lysine epsilon amino groups and then reaction with the thiol group of the cysteine.

An example of a modification that might allow more room between tetramers would be addition of one turn of the helix to the N-terminus of the A and C helices and the C-terminus of the B and D helices. This and similar modifications would be subject to modeling and experimental constraints.

Analogous core proteins could be made as mutants of known 4-helical bundle proteins such as myohemerythrin or apoferritin, with the surface residues changed so that 8 (or more if topologically possible) lysines (2 per helix) exist on the surface for subsequent modification and attachment of the tetramer.

Poly(tetrameric) Hemoglobins with Reduced Isoelectric Points

If the isoelectric point of the whole crosslinked conjugate also affects the serum half life, via electrostatic exclusion from the renal filter's “pore”, additional negative charges could be included in the crosslink itself (rather than in the hemoglobin, which could change the function of the molecule) to drop the isoelectric point of the overall crosslinked particle. An additional benefit of this might be reduced uptake by the reticuloendothelial system, this uptake being a function of pI for cationized albumin.

We have preliminary evidence from succinylation of SGE1.1 which correlates the number of modified lysines with isoelectric point. This gives a rough estimate of the number of lys to glu and/or lys to asp mutations which may be necessary to reach a pI of 5 or less, the pI range which we expect we need to significantly extend half life. We believe that as many as 8 lysines may have to be modified (a total shift in charge of 16 units) to drop the pI roughly 2 units. It should be less disruptive of the functional properties of hemoglobin to do this via a peptide crosslinker rather than by mutation of the alpha and beta globin subunits proper. However, some mutations could be made in the crosslinker and the remainder in the subunits. As before, the SGE1.1-cys would be attached to iodoacetylated lysine epsilon amino groups by reaction at pH 6.5-7.0.

For human serum albumin in the rat, the half life varied roughly linearly with the pI of the protein, from ca. 4.6 hours for native albumin (pI=4) to 0.8 hrs at a pI above 9.5. Clearance was probably by multiple mechanisms, including potentially increased uptake into the reticuloendothelial system with increased pI. For rat trypsinogens, the difference in serum half life between versions with a pI of 5.-0 (t_(½) of 4 min) was even larger. Thus a lower pI clearly appears to be an important variable in the serum half life of these proteins.

The following table gives examples of crosslinkers between mono-cys tetramers which should diminish the isoelectric point of the overall complex.

Source Sequence polyasp or polyglu

n probably ≧ 10-12, X = D or E− polyasp or polyglu

n > 2 to provide flexibility at each terminus, m ≧ 10-12, X = D⁻ or E⁻ polyasp or polyglu

n ≧ 5-6, m ≧ 10-12, X = D− or E −

A number of the proposed crosslinkers could combine at least two, or possibly three of these attributes for potential additive effects.

It is possible that the unique amine groups in the peptide crosslinkers could be directly iodoacetylated during the peptide synthesis by treating iodoacetic acid as the last amino acid to be added, after deprotecting the lysine amine groups on the resin. In this case, the lysines would be orthogonally protected with N-FMOC or N-nitropyridinesulfenyl groups, or with BNPEOC. This could greatly simplify their synthesis.

Alternate methodologies to iodoacetylation as part of the synthesis could include the reaction of either sge1.1.-SH or the peptide crosslinker with a heterobifunctional crosslinker specific for sulfhydryls and amines, such as sulfo-SMCC or similar reagents available from Pierce Chemical Co. (Rockford, Ill.).

Genetically Fused Poly(tetrameric) Hemoglobins

Another approach to the preparation of multimeric (e.g., polytetrameric) hemoglobin involves the genetic fusing of individual tetramers utilizing other linkers. Two or more tetramers may be linked, depending on the desired molecular weight and the efficiency of folding of the final molecule. The dialpha (or dibeta) subunits from different tetramers of a di-alpha or di-beta Hgb might be genetically fused together into an extended polypeptide which would link the individual pseudotetrameric domains.

Proteolytically stable extended polypeptide linkages can be envisioned. Desirable linker features might include 1) a number of glycines at each end to allow flexibility in entering the dialpha (or beta) terminal domains, and to decouple the linker secondary structure from that of the dialpha (or beta) terminal domains; 2) stiffness to separate tetramers, obtainable by an extended structure such as a polyproline helix or by polyglutamate or polyaspartate; and 3) inertness to proteases (vide supra or as in a collagen sequence). Several examples of such sequences are listed below. Obviously any other of the peptide linkers mentioned in this specification could be tried after first sterically modeling the fused-dialpha (or dibeta) termini environment. The links would go from the C-terminus of one dialpha to the N-terminus of the next and would be synthesized as a single gene. Besides modeling segments of protease-resistant or negatively charged secondary structure, one or more of the Artemia linkers should be modeled between tetramers. The beta chains could also be joined in this fashion, although the results of this on protein function would be unknown. It might be feasible to make an intermolecular di-beta (sge1.1) with or without additional intrachain crosslinkages.

Source Sequence polyproline di α or β C term-(G)n-(P)n-(G)n-di helix α or β N terminus n probably ≧ 3, m probably ≧ 10-12 polyaspartate -(G)n-(D)n-(G)n- or -glutamate (should drop pI of complex) Artemia linker -(G)n-Leu-Arg-Arg-Gln-Ile-Asp-Leu-Glu-Val-Thr- (example) -Gly-Leu-(G)n-; n ≧ 0 [SEQ ID NO:28] a helical -(G)n-Lys-Cys-Ala-Glu-Leu-Glu-Gly-Lys-Leu-Glu-Ala- coiled coil -Leu-Glu-Gly-Lys-Leu-Glu-Ala-Leu-Glu-Gly-Lys-Leu- -Glu-Ala-Leu-Glu-Gly-Lys-Leu-Glu-Ala-Leu-Glu-Gly- <--not fused to terminus (should form octamer with coiled-coil crosslink) [SEQ ID NO:29]

We have determined the minimum of the intertetramer linker as follows. Two structures of human hemoglobin A_(O) (either both in the oxy form or both in the deoxy form) taken or assembled from the Brookhaven Protein Data Bank were docked as close together as possible without van der Waals overlap between any residues, using the program Insight (Biosym. Inc., San Diego, Calif.). The distance from the alpha chain C terminal residue arg 141 to the amino terminal nitrogen of the alpha chain N terminal residue val 1 (in one structure) was then measured. This distance was ca. 22 Å when both molecules had the oxy structure and ca. 18 Å when both were in the deoxy structure. In the oxy and deoxy structures, the valine at the alpha chain N terminus is exposed at the side of a cleft in the structure, while the arg carboxylate is at the bottom of the cleft. Thus it is possible to genetically fuse these two termini without suffering a large structural displacement of residues around either terminal amino acid. A suitable intertetramer linker will be at least 18-22 angstroms long, preferably longer in order to give the structure additional flexibility. There is no fixed upper limit on the length of the linker, however, the longer the linker, the more susceptible it is to protease, and, if the molecule appears large enough, it may be phagocytosed by macrophages of the reticuloendothelial system. A few examples of suitable linkers are listed below.

An alternative fusion may be envisioned between a truncated alpha chain in one hemoglobin and the N terminal alpha val 1 in the second hemoglobin. The first molecule could be truncated at ser 138, which intermolecular N terminal to C terminal distance is about 17 Å (deoxy) and 22 Å (oxy), and examples of genetically inserted linkers spanning this distance are listed below.

Thus two hemoglobin molecules could be linked (by fusing two intermolecular alpha domains) to generate a fusion protein approximately twice the size of normal human hemoglobin. An additional intramolecular crosslink, as introduced into rHb1.1 to prevent dissociation of hemoglobin into dimers, could be included as well, giving a fusion of four alpha domains.

We expect that the genetically inserted links will be stable in the presence of proteases, due to the steric occlusion by the two hemoglobins surrounding the linkage. This resistance may be further enhanced by the use of glycines, bonds between which may be less susceptible to proteases, since most proteases have side chain specificity for residues other than glycine (which has only a hydrogen as a sidechain, and thus may result in a poor Km of this substrate for a protease). A polyproline helix may also be used as a linker to enhance stability to proteases. Fusion of a polyglutamate or polyaspartate as a linker might allow a much lower isoelectric point for the complex, and thus a longer serum half life.

Intertetrameric Linkers for Inclusion in Pseudooligomeric Polypeptides end-to-end Linker Distance conformation Comments -(gly)₇- 25Å extended minimal length SEQ ID NO:30 for gly linker to span termini in both oxy and deoxy structures. Longer linkers (up to 20-50 residues) may also work favorably. -(gly)₁₋₃(ala) 20Å-40Å Ala in the Gly are added ₁₂-(gly)₁₋₃- right for flexibility helix handed and minimal SEQ ID NO:31 alpha disturbance of Hb helix structure around their fusion with the N and C termini. Length is dependent on the number of glycines and the degree of extension -(gly)₁₋₃(pro) 21-48Å pro in a 12, 14, 16 ₁₂₋₁₆-(gly)₁₋₃- left prolines. Length proline handed dependent on helix poly- number of SEQ ID NO:32 proline prolines and helix glycines (gly)₁₋₃- 26-49Å Asp residues add (asp)₁₋₃₀- negative charges (gly₁₋₃)- SEQ ID NO:33

Other residues could be substituted into these linkers while leaving their length essentially the same, including complete linkers taken from the sequence of other known human proteins such as hemoglobin, to prevent any recognition of the multimer as a foreign protein.

Use of linkers with a maximal length more than 18 Å and less than 22 Å may differentially stabilize the deoxy structure, and may result in a lowered oxygen affinity for the multimer.

Octameric Hemoglobins Formed Without Use of an Pseudooligomeric Globin

It is possible to produce an octameric hemoglobin, without substantial production of higher multimers, by suitable cypteine mutation of either the alpha or beta chain (see FIGS. 5a-5 c).

Hemoglobin mutants containing one X to cys mutation in the beta chain gene (giving two per tetramer) or in the alpha chain gene (also giving two per tetramer), in which the residues mutated to cysteine are both on or very close to the surface of the subunit and are as close to the dyad axis separating the subunits, may form octamers (two hemoglobins) linked by two disulfides. Polymerization of such mutants should be retarded by the proximity of the two disulfides to each other, such that after one disulfide is formed, a third incoming hemoglobin will be sterically hindered from reacting with either free cysteine on the two original hemoglobins.

Because it is possible that this mutant may form higher order polymers (rather than simply the octamer), a diluted solution nay be used in vitro for formation of disulfide bonds. The kinetics of polymerization of hemoglobin should be at least second order (or a higher order) in hemoglobin concentration, while after one disulfide is formed, the formation of the second disulfide between two tetramers should be zero order in hemoglobin. Thus the ratio of polymerized product to octamer should diminish as the hemoglobin concentration is decreased. If formation of octamers is done under oxygenated conditions, the yield of octamers vs. polymers may increase further, since the distance between the two cys mutations is less in every case in the oxy hemoglobin structure than in the deoxy structure.

A list of preferred mutation sites in both the beta chain and the alpha chain is provided below:

Beta and alpha chain mutation sites for x to cys mutations to form disulfide-bond linked octameric hemoglobin.

Chain/ Old New Mutation Distance(Å) Distance(Å) Comment beta Asn 22 18 no listed 80 to cys deleterious mutations, asn 80 is on surface beta Asp 24 22 Hb Tampa^(a) (asp to 79 to cys tyr) has no major abnormal property listed; Hb G-His- Tsou (asp to gly) has increased O₂ affinity; is on surface alpha Asn 24 20 on surface; no 78 to cys major^(a) abnormal properties of known mutations of asn 78 alpha Asp   22A 18 on surface; no 75 to cys major abnormal properties of known mutations of asp 75 alpha Asp 26 20 on surface; no 74 to cys major^(a) abnormal properties of known mutations of asp 74 ^(a)R. N. Wrightstone. Policies of the International Hemoglobin Information Center (IHIC), Comprehensive Sickle Cell Center, Medical College of Georgia. 1988.

Gene Construction and Expression

The DNA sequences encoding the individual polypeptide chains may be of genomic, cDNA and synthetic origin, or a combination thereof. Since the genomic globin genes contains introns, genomic DNA must either be expressed in a host which can properly splice the premessenger RNA or modified by excising the introns. Use of an at least partially synthetic gene is preferable for several reasons. First, the codons encoding the desired amino acids may be selected with a view to providing unique or nearly unique restriction sites at convenient points in the sequence, thus facilitating rapid alteration of the sequence by cassette mutagenesis. Second, the codon selection may be made to optimize expression in a selected host. For codon preferences in E. coli, see Konigsberg, et al., PNAS, 80:687-91 (1983). Finally, secondary structures formed by the messenger RNA transcript may interfere with transcription or translation. If so, these secondary structures may be eliminated by altering the codon selections.

Of course, if a linker is used to genetically crosslink subunits, the linker will normally be encoded by a synthetic DNA.

The present invention is not limited to the use of any particular host cell, vector, or promoter. The host cell may be prokaryotic or eukaryotic, and, in the latter case, may be a plant, insect or mammalian (including human) cell. The cell may also be of any suitable tissue type, including, inter alia, an erythrocyte. However, the preferred host cells are bacterial (especially, E. coli) and yeast (especially S. cerevisiae) cells. The promoter selected must be functional in the desired host cells. It preferably is an inducible promoter which, upon induction, provides a high rate of transcription. A preferred bacterial promoter is the Tac promoter, a trp/lac hybrid described fully in DeBoer, U.S. Pat. No. 4,551,433 and commercially available from Pharmacia-LKB. Other promoters which might be used include the temperature sensitive lambda P_(L) and P_(R) promoters, as well as the lac, trp, trc, pIN (lipoprotein promoter and lac operator hybrid), gal and heat shock promoters. The promoter used need not be identical to any naturally-occurring promoter. Guidance for the design of promoters is provided by studies of promoter structure such as that of Harley and Reynolds, Nucleic Acids Res., 15:2343-61 (1987) and papers cited therein. The location of the promoter relative to the first structural gene may be optimized. See Roberts, et al., PNAS (USA), 76:760-4 (1979). The use of a single promoter is favored. Suitable yeast expression systems are described in detail elsewhere in this specification.

The vector used must be one having an origin of replication which is functional in the host cell. It desirably also has unique restriction sites for insertion of the globin genes and the desired regulatory elements and a conventional selectable marker. A vector may be modified to introduce or eliminate restriction sites to make it more suitable for futher manipulations.

The component polypeptide chains of the multimeric hemoglobin may be expressed either directly or as part of fusion proteins. When expressed as fusion proteins, the latter may include a site at which they may be cleaved to release the globin-related moiety free of extraneous polypeptide. If so, a site sensitive to the enzyme Factor Xa may be provided, as taught in Nagai and Thorgenson, EP Appl 161,937, incorporated by reference herein. Alternatively, the fusion proteins may be synthesized, folded and heme incorporated to yield a hemoglobin analogue. The direct expression of the component polypeptides is desirable.

In bacterial mRNA, the site at which the ribosome binds to the messenger is a polypurine stretch which lies 4-7 bases upstream of the start (AUG) codon. The consensus sequence of this stretch is 5′. . . AGGAGG . . . 3′, and is frequently referred to as the Shine-Dalgarno sequence. Shine and Dalgarno, Nature, 254: 34 (1975). The exact distance between the SD sequence and the translational start codon, and the base sequence of this “spacer” region, affect the efficiency of translation and may be optimized empirically., Shepard, et al., DNA 1: 125 (1985); DeBoer, et al., DNA 2: 231 (1983); Hui, et al., EMBO J., 3: 623 (1984).

In addition, the SD sequence may itself be modified to alter expression. Hui and DeBoer, PNAS (USA). 84:4762-66 (1987). Comparative studies of ribosomal binding sites, such as the study of Scherer, et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 8:3895-3907 (1907), may provide guidance as to suitable base changes. If the hemoglobin is to be expressed in a host other than E. coli, a ribosomal-binding site preferred by that host should be provided. Zaghbil and Doi, J. Bacteriol., 168:1033-35 (1986).

Any host may be used which recognizes the selected promoter and ribosomal binding site and which has the capability of synthesizing and incorporating here. Bacterial and yeast hosts are preferred.

The intracellularly assembled hemoglobin may be recovered from the producing cells and purified by any art-recognized technique.

Polycistronic Expression in Bacteria

While not required, it is desirable that the subunits, when expressed in bacteria, be co-expressed in the same cell, and it is still more preferable that they be co-expressed polycistronically. A polycistronic operon encodes a single messenger RNA transcript having one promoter sequence, but two or more pairs of start and stop codons that define distinctly translatable sequences. Each such sequence is known as a “cistron,” and the polypeptides corresponding to the cistrons are thus co-expressed under the control of the single promoter.

The majority of bacterial operons are polycistronic, that is, several different genes are transcribed as a single message from their operons. Examples include the lactose operon with three linked genes. (lacZ, lacY and lacA) and the tryptophan operon with five associated genes (trpE, trpD, trpC, trpB, and trpA). In these operons, the synthesis of messenger RNA is initiated at the promoter and, within the transcript, coding regions are separated by intercistronic regions of various lengths. (An operon is a cluster of genes that is controlled as a single transcriptional genetic unit). Translational efficiency varies from cistron to cistron. Kastelein, et al., Gene, 23: 245-54 (1983).

When intercistronic regions are longer than the span of the ribosome (about 35 bases), dissociation at the stop codon of one cistron is followed by independent initiation at the next cistron. With shorter intercistronic regions, or with overlapping cistrons, the 30S subunit of a terminating ribosome may fail to dissociate from the polycistronic mRNA, being instantly attracted to the next translational initiation site. Lewin, Gene Expression, 143-148 (John Wiley & Sons: 1977).

Unlike bacterial mRNAs, eukaryotic mRNAs are generally monocistronic in nature. Lewin, Gene Expression, 157.

In one embodiment, expression of the genes encoding two or more component polypeptides are driven by a single promoter, and the genes are arranged so that a polycistronic messenger RNA transcript is transcribed, from which the separate globin-like polypeptides are subsequently translated. However, the present invention includes the co-expression of the different polypeptides from separate promoters, i.e., the host transcribes separate alpha and beta globin mRNAs.

Ideally, alpha and beta globin-like domains are expressed in stoichiometrically equal amounts. While use of a single promoter does not guarantee equality, it eliminates one unbalancing influence—differences in transcription owing to differences in promoter strength is and accessibility. If differences in promoter strength were minimized by use of two identical promoters on the same plasmid, plasmid stability would be reduced as there would be a propensity toward recombination of the homologous regions.

Preferably, the alpha and beta globin-like domain-encoding genes are arranged so that the ribosome will translate the alpha globin cistrons first. The rationale is that there is some basis for believing that alpha globin affects the folding of beta globin. Nonetheless, the position of the genes may be switched so that a beta globin-like domain is synthesized first.

The stability of the polycistronic mRNA transcript, the efficacy of its translation into alpha and beta globin-like polypeptides, and the folding of the globin chains into tetrameric hemoglobin may be modified by varying the length and base sequence of the intercistronic regions (the region lying between the stop codon of one cistron and the start codon of the next cistron), the phasing of a second cistron relative to a first cistron, and the position and sequence of the ribosomal binding site for the one cistron relative to the preceding cistron.

In a preferred embodiment, the alpha and beta globin-like polypeptides genes are each preceded by a short “introductory” cistron or “ribosomal loader” which facilities the subsequent translation of the globin cistron. In FIG. 2, region A (FIGS. 2a through 2 c) contains two cistrons and a Shine-Dalgarno sequence preceding each cistron. The first Shine-Dalgarno sequence (SD#1) is bound by the ribosome, which then translates the first cistron, a short cistron encoding an octapeptide. (This cistron is referred to as an “introductory cistron or ribosomal loader.) The second cistron is a globin gene, in this case, an FX alpha-globin gene. The Shine-Dalgarno sequence (SD#2) for facilitating translation of the second cistron actually lies within the first cistron. For this reason, the two are said to be “transitionally coupled”. Region B (FIGS. 2c through 2 e) is identical in structure, except that the second cistron encodes FX-beta globin. Between regions A and B is a 43-base intercistronic region (FIG. 2c). The introductory cistrons of regions A and B correspond to the first cistron of the two-cistron expression system denoted pCZ144 in Schoner, et al., Meth. Enzymol., 153: 401-16 (1987). The present invention is not, however, limited to the particular “starter” cistron taught by Schoner, et al.; other introductory cistrons that allow for restart of high level translation of a following cistron may be used.

Guidance as to the design of intercistronic sequences and as to the location of SD sequences may be obtained by comparing the translational efficiency of spontaneous or controlled mutants of the same polycistronic operon, as exemplified by Schoner, et al., PNAS, 83: 8506-10 (1980). It is also possible to look for consensus features in the intercistronic regions of different operons. McCarthy, et al., EMBO J., 4: 519-26 (1985) have identified a translation-enhancing intercistronic sequence in the E. coli atp operon.

The present invention is intended to reduce or avoid the localization of the hemoglobin or its component polypeptides into inclusion bodies. Consequently, a further feature of the invention is that the functional hemoglobin is substantially found (preferably over 80%) in the soluble fraction of the cell. It appears that with this invention, over 90% of the functional hemoglobin can be so directed when alpha₂ beta₂ hemoglobin is assembled from alpha- and beta-globin chains co-expressed from a tetracistronic operon as described herein. With di-alpha, beta₂ hemoglobin, nearly 100% is soluble when expression is induced at 25° C. and less at higher induction temperatures. These percentages reflect the percent of all di-alpha and beta chains found in the soluble fraction of the cell and not actual recovery of protein from the cell.

Expression in Yeast

In another embodiment the present invention relates to the production of hemoglobin-like molecules in yeast. Our preferred host for expression in yeast is Saccharomyces cerevisiae. However, other fungi or yeast may be used for the purpose, such as strains of Aspergillus or Pichia. For yeast to be a suitable host it must be capable of being transformed with recombinant vectors, either replicating or integrating types. This allows the insertion of the desired DNA sequence for the gene of interest. It must also be capable of high density cell growth, in appropriate volume to provide sufficient cell mass to isolate the desired gene product from the desired reaction vessels, where ideally the growth would be easily controlled by several parameters including nutrient formulation, agitation and oxygen transfer and temperature. It is also desirable to be able to induce the expression of protein synthesis with the manipulation of the media, temperature, or by the addition or consumption of certain chemicals. Finally, to be a suitable host, the yeast must be capable of producing recombinant proteins, preferably in excess of 1% of the total cell protein. This allows more facile isolation of the desired recombinant protein.

Either a haploid or a diploid strain of S. cerevisiae may be used. For example, the following diploid strains are preferred:

BJY3505 x RSY330

BJY3505 x BJY 1991

Other matings may likewise be used in practicing the present invention.

The use of protease-deficient strains may also be advantageous.

Yeast expression systems can be divided into two main categories: (1) Systems designed to secrete protein and (2) system designed for the cytoplasmic expression of proteins. At present, cytoplasmic expression is preferred since the yeast cells fold together the globin chains and incorporate heme to produce hemoglobin in vivo. However, it is possible to separately express and secrete the alpha and beta globin chains and assemble hemoglobin in vitro.

The globin genes must be placed under the control of a suitable promoter. The commonly used yeast promoters generally fall into two broad categories: regulated and constitutive. Constitutive promoters that are in wide use include GAP, PGK (phosphoglycerate kinase) and the α-factor promoter. Regulated promoters have also been used and these include the yeast metallothionein promoter (regulated by copper), the Gal1-10 promoter, GAL7 promoter (regulated by galactose and glucose) the ADHII promoter (regulated by ethanol and glucose) the PH05 promoter (phosphate regulation) and several hybrid promoters such as PH05-GAP, GAL-PGK, ADHII-GAP, and GAL-CYC1.

The use of a GAL-GAP hybrid promoter is preferred. Both elements (the GAL_(UAS) and the GAP transcriptional initiation site) are well understood. Studies on the mechanisms of transcriptional regulation of the GAL regulon have been fairly extensive. The galactose regulon includes five genes that encode enzymes required for the utilization of galactose. Four of these genes (GAL1, GAL7, GAL10, and GAL2) are expressed only in the presence of galactose. Galactose induction does not occur in the presence of glucose unless the yeast strain bears a mutation in the REG1 gene. The GAL1, 7, 10 and 2 genes are regulated by at least two other genes, GAL80 and GAL4. The GAL4 gene is a transcriptional activator protein that activates mRNA synthesis from the GAL1, 7, 10 and 2 upstream activator sequences (UAS_(GAL)). Although GAL4 is constitutively expressed, it is functionally silent in the absence of galactose. Repression of GAL4 activity, in the absence of galactose is maintained by the product of the GAL80 gene. The GAL80 protein apparently interacts physically with GAL4 to prevent transcriptional activation. Presumably galactose or a galactose derivative prevents this interaction to allow GAL4 mediated induction.

Haploid strains of S. cerevisiae have three different genes encoding the enzyme glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAP). These genes have been designated TDH1, TDH2 and TDH3 and each is present as a single copy per haploid genome. The TDH3 gene produces approximately 60% of the cell's GAP enzyme and TDH1 and 2 produce about 12% and 28%, respectively (McAllister, L and M. J. Holland, 1985. J. Biol Chem, 260: 15019-15027). Holland's group (Holland et al. 1981. J. Biol Chem, 256:1385-1395; and Holland et al. 1983. J Biol Chem 258:5291-5299) has cloned and characterized the three GAP genes of S. cerevisiae. The clones have been designated pGAP11, pGAP63, and pGAP491. pGAP491 corresponds to the TDH3 gene and is therefore, the most highly expressed.

This promoter is commonly used as a 600-850 bp fragment and is essentially un-regulated. In its long form this is a very powerful promoter. The form we are using consists of only ⁻200 bp 5′ of the translational initiation site. This form, with no added enhancer sequences is substantially less active than the longer form of the promoter (Edens, L. et al. Cell, 37:629 (1984)). Our addition of the GAL enhancer region confers both regulation and high levels of expression. With only the GAP491 promoter, alpha and beta globin were produced at a level of less than 0.2% total cell protein; with the GAL-GAP491 hybrid promoter, expression jumped to 7-10% total cell protein.

Several other hybrid promoters are of particular interest: GAL-SIGMA; SIGMA-GAP; GAL-EF III; SIGMA-EF III.

One could easily conceive of other promoter systems that would also work. This would include, but not be limited to, a variety of constitutive promoters. For example, the yeast mating factorα (MFα) promoter or the mating factor a promoter MF(a), the phosphoglycerate kinase promoter (PGK), hexokinase1, hexokinase2, glucokinase, pyruvate kinase, triose phosphate isomerase, phosphoglycerate isomerase, phosphoglycerate mutase, phosphofructose kinase or aldolase promoters may all be used. In short, any well expressed yeast promoter may work for expression of hemoglobin in yeast. A wide variety of naturally occurring, regulated promoters could also be used, for example: GAL1-10, GAL7, PHO5, ADHII have all been used to produce heterologous proteins in yeast. A variety of synthetic or semi-synthetic yeast promoters could also be employed such as GAL-PGK, GAL-MFα-1, GAL-MFa1, GAL-SIGMA. ADHII regulatory sequences could also be coupled to strong transcriptional initiation sites derived from a variety of promoters. The-PHO5 regulatory sequence or the sigma element regulatory sequences could also be used to construct powerful hybrid promoters. In addition to yeast promoters, it is conceivable that one could use a powerful prokaryotic promoter like the T7 promoter. In this case, one could place the T7 polymerase under the control of a tightly regulated yeast promoter. Induction of the phage polymerase in yeast cells bearing hemoglobin genes under T7 promoter regulation would allow transcription of the genes by this very efficient phage polymerase.

Because most of the yeast regulatory sequences described above serve as targets for proteins that are positive regulators of transcription, it is conceivable that these proteins may limit transcription in situations where the target sequence is present in many copies. Such a situation may obtain with vectors such as pC1B, pCIT, pC1U or pC1N which may be present in excess of 200 copies per cell. Over-expression of the positive regulator (for example GAL4) may result in enhanced expression. It is possible to construct a strain in which the GAL4 gene is altered to remove its promoter and the promoter replaced with the GAL7 or GAL1-10 promoters, both of which are transcribed more efficiently than the GAL4 promoter. In this situation, the positive transcriptional activator protein GAL4 would be expressed at elevated levels at the time hemoglobin expression was induced.

The consensus sequence for higher eukaryotic ribosome binding sites has been defined by Kozack (Cell, 44:283-292 (1986)) to be: G^(AA) _(G)CCAUGG (SEQ ID NO:10). Deviations from this sequence, particularly at the −3 position (A or G), have a large effect on translation of a particular mRNA. Virtually all highly expressed mammalian genes use this sequence. Highly expressed yeast mRNAs, on the other hand, differ from this sequence and instead use the sequence AAAAAUGU (Cigan and Donahue, Gene, 59:1-18 (1987)). The ribosome binding site that we use for expression of the α and β-globins corresponds to the higher eukaryotic ribosome binding site. It is within the contemplation of this invention to systematically alter this RBS to test the effects of changes that make it more closely resemble the RBS of yeast. It should be pointed out, however, that alterations at the −2, −1 and +3 positions, in general, have been-found to only slightly affect translational efficiency in yeast and in mammals.

Intracellular expression of genes in S. cerevisiae is primarily affected by the strength of the promoter associated with the gene, the plasmid copy number (for plasmid-borne genes), the transcription terminator, the host strain, and the codon preference pattern of the gene. When secretion of the gene- product is desired, the secretion leader sequence becomes significant. It should be noted that with multicopy plasmids, secretion efficiency may be reduced by strong promoter constructions. Ernst, DNA 5:483-491 (1986).

A variety of extrachromosomally replicating vectors (plasmids) are available for transforming yeast cells. The most useful multicopy extrachromosomal yeast vectors are shuttle vectors that use a full length 2μ-circle combined with an E. coli plasmid. These vectors carry genes that allows one to maintain the plasmid in appropriate yeast mutants and antibiotic resistance markers that allow selection in E. coli. Use of the full-length 2μ-circle, in contrast to vectors containing only a partial 2μ sequence; generally results in much higher plasmid stability, particularly in yeast strains that have been cured of endogenous 2μ plasmid. The pC series of vectors described herein are vectors of this type.

Strains could also be constructed in such a way that the GALGAP hemoglobin expression cassettes were integrated into chromosomes by using yeast integrating vectors. Although the copy number of the hemoglobin genes would be lower than for plasmid vectors, they would be quite stable and perhaps not require selection to be maintained in the host cell. Yeast integrating vectors include Yip5 (Struhl, et al, PNAS, 76:1035-39, 1989), Yip1 (Id.), and pGT6 (Tchumper and Carbon, Gene, 10:157-166, 1980). For information on these and other yeast vectors, see Pouwels, et al., Cloning Vector, VI-I, et seq. (Elsevier, 1985).

The genes encoding the desired globin-like domains may be introduced by separate plasmids, or both upon the same plasmid.

Highly expressed yeast genes show a very high codon bias. The genes encoding glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase and ADH-I, for example, show a 90% bias for a set of 25 codons. Highly expressed yeast genes (>1% of the total mRNA) have yeast codon bias indices of >0.90. Moderately expressed genes (0.1-0.05% of the total mRNA) have bias indices of 0.6-0.8, and genes expressed at low levels (>0.05% of the total cell protein) have a codon bias of 0.10-0.50(Bennetzen and Hall, J. Biol. Chem., 257:3026-3031 (1982)). The calculated value for the codons of the human α-globin cDNA is 0.23. A similar value can be calculated for the β-globin cDNA. Because there is a very high correlation between the most commonly used codons, it is possible that hemoglobin expression from the human cDNA in yeast may be limited by the availability of the appropriate tRNA molecules. If this is so, a complete synthesis of the gene using the most highly favored yeast codons could improve the expression levels. It is quite possible that the greatest negative effect of adverse codon use would be if there was an abundance of codons used in the cDNA that are represented by low abundance tRNAs. In such a case, high level expression of hemoglobin could completely drain that pool of tRNA molecules, reducing translation not only of hemoglobin but of yeast proteins that happen to use that codon as well. In the case of the α-globin human cDNA, the most commonly used leucine codon is CTG (14 of 21), this codon is never used in highly expressed yeast genes (Guthrie and Abelson, The Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccharomyces, Eds. Stratern, Jones and Broach, 1982. Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.). The low codon bias index and the presence of rare yeast codons in the globin cDNAs have been sufficient incentive for us to synthesize a modified form of the alpha- and beta-globin genes using the preferred yeast codons.

Miscellaneous

The appended claims are hereby incorporated by reference as a further enumeration of the preferred embodiments. All cited references are incorporated by reference to the extent necessary to enable the practice of the invention as now or hereafter claimed.

Preparation of expression vectors suitable for use in production of the claimed multimeric hemoglobins may be facilitated by the Budapest Treaty deposit of the following vectors, all made with American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, Md. USA on May 10, 1990:

ATCC 68323 pDL III-14c

This is a derivative of pKK223-3 (Pharmacia LKB, Piscataway, N.J., USA) and pGEM1 (Promega Corp., Madison, Wis., USA) which carries synthetic genes for des-Val alpha globin and des-Val beta globin as part of a polycistronic operon driven by a single Tac promoter.

ATCC 68324 pDL IV-8a

This is a derivative of PDL III-14c which contains a fused gene encoding an alpha globin moiety, a glycine, and a second alpha globin moiety, as well as a second gene encoding des-Val beta globin.

ATCC 20992 pGS 389

This is a yeast vector which expresses alpha and beta globin under control of GALGAP promoters.

The deposit of these vectors should not be construed as a license to make, use or sell them.

EXAMPLE 1 Construction of di-α Globin Mono-cysteine (A71C, D75C, or S81C) Mutant Expression Vector

The following plasmids, whose preparation is fully described in Hoffman, et al., WO88/09179, were manipulated in this Example.

Plasmid pDL II-83a

A gene encoding a Met initiation codon, a Factor X site (Ile-Glu-Gly-Arg)(SEQ ID NO:11), and human alpha globin, collectively referred to as FX-A, was synthesized and cloned into the XmaI/PstI sites of M13mp19. The EcoRI-PstI fragment bearing the FX-A gene was excised and recloned into pKK 223-3, placing it under control of the Tac promoter. This derivative was called pDLII-62m. The FX-A gene was removed from pDLII-62m and ligated with EcoRI/PstI linearized pGEM1, forming pGEM-FX-A. This was digested with NdeI and EagI, removing the Factor Xa coding sequence (and part of the α globin coding sequence). The excised fragment was replaced by a synthetic oligonucleotide which restored the missing α globin codons; the resulting plasmid was named pDLII-83a. The protein expressed was “Met-Val-Leu- . . . .”

Plasmid pDLII-91f, in which the gene encodes “Met Leu . . . ” instead of “Met-Val-Leu”, was likewise constructed from pGEM-FX-A, but with a different synthetic replacement oligonucleotide, missing the Val codon.

Plasmid pSGE 1.1 E4

This plasmid (also known as SGE1.1) is depicted in FIG. 1. Plasmid pDLIV-8A may be converted to SGE1.1E4 by the following protocol.

The expression plasmid pDLIV-8a contains the dialpha coding sequences, in which the alpha globins are linked by a single glycine codon, and the des-val beta globin genes, under the control of a single Ptac promoter. The plasmid encodes ampicillin resistance, does not have a functional tetracycline resistance gene, and is Rop+ and Lac. Oligonucleotide directed site specific mutagenesis using a commercially available kit such as DoubleTake™ (Stratagene, Inc.) can be used to insert the Presbyterian mutation into the beta globin sequence.

AAC AAA TTG TTT asn¹⁰⁸ lys

The final expression plasmid, SGE1.1E4 (amp X, tet R, Rop−, Lac+) is then constructed by insertion of both a functional tetracycline resistance gene and the lacl gene which encodes the lac repressor protein that inhibits the Ptac promoter until induction with an inducing agent. These modifications are described below.

The initial modification to the plasmid is the insertion of the lacI gene. This gene can be synthesized by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) amplification, according to the manufacturer's protocol (Perkin Elmer Cetus, Norwalk, Conn.) using the F episome of E. coli strain JM109 (FtraD36, proAB, lacI¶ΔM15) as a substrate. The following oligonucleotides can be used as primers:

(SEQ ID NO:12) Forward: 5′ GCGGCCGCGGAAGAGTCAATTCAGGAGGGTG 3′ (SEQ ID NO:13) Reverse: 5′ GCGGCCGTCACTGCCCGCTTTCCAGTCGGGAA 3′

The primers contain, at their 5′ ends, sequences which encode for NotI restriction enzyme sites. The product of the PCR amplification reaction can be blunt ended and cloned into the PuvII site of the expression plasmid. The PuvIl site is not reconstructed during this cloning step, so digestion with PuvII following ligation will linearize plasmids which do not incorporate the lacI sequence. Linearized plasmids will not transforms E. coli. Because the primers are complementary only to the translated portion of the lacI gene, this fragment does not contain its own promoter. Note that inducibility or expression of hemoglobin is dependent on the orientation of the lacI gene, thus orientation should be checked after insertion of the lacI gene. The correct orientation has a smaller EcoR5 fragment than the incorrect orientation. Moreover, insertion of the lacI repressor gene into the PuvII restriction site inactivates the rop gene product and results in increased plasmid copy number.

The final modification to the plasmid is restoration of a functional tetracycline resistance gene. This can be accomplished by digestion of commercially available pBR322 with EcoRI followed by insertion via ligation of a synthetic DNA linker containing the 5′ and 3′ ends complementary to the EcoRI overhangs and an internal BamHI site. The BamHI fragment from this modified pBR322 vector containing the 5′ coding sequence of the tetracycline resistance gene is purified by agarose gel electrophoresis, then inserted into the BamHI site of the modified pDL IV-8a plasmid. Only one orientation of the tet^(R) fragment results in tetracycline resistance; strains can be screened for the proper orientation by growth on the appropriate medium. Insertion of the tet^(R) fragment into the modified vector restores tetracycline resistance and produces SGE1.1E4.

Plasmid pGEM di-alpha.

The di-alpha gene-bearing SmaI/PstI fragment of SGE 1.1 E4 was ligated with SmaI/PstI-cut pGEM 1 to form pGEM di-alpha.

1.1 Subcloning of the α Gene into Phagescript

The desfxα pGem (pDLII-83a) vector was cut with EcoR1 and Pst1 endonucleases and-ligated into EcoR1/Pst1 digested phagescript (obtained from Stratagene). E. coli strain DH5α was transformed with the ligation mixture and cells were plated on 2xYT plates overlaid with 3 ml top agar containing 10 μl 100 mM IPTG, 25 μl 2% X-Gal in DMSO and 150 μl XL-1 cells (Stratagene). Clear plaques were picked and grown at 37° C. in 2xYT containing XL-1 cells. Double stranded DNA was isolated from the cultures and checked for the presence of the 500 bp α gene by restriction analysis and agarose gel electrophoresis. Single stranded DNA was isolated from one of the desfxα phagescript transformants (named f191). The single stranded DNA was sequenced to confirm the presence of the desfxα gene in the phagescript.

1.2 Mutagenic Oligonucleotides

Three mutagenic oligonucleotides were used in three separate mutagenic reactions. The sequences of the oligonucleotides were as follows (mutant codon is underlined):

Nigeria mutation: αS81C 5′ CCG AAC GCG TTG TGC GCT CTG TCT GAT 3′ [SEQ ID NO:14] αD75C 5′ GGT GCT CAC GTT GAT TGC ATG CCG AAC GCG 3′ [SEQ ID NO:15] αA71C 5′ CTG ACC AAC GCT GTT TGC CAC GTT GAT GAT 3′ [SEQ ID NO:16]

1.3 Kinase Reaction Conditions for Mutagenic Oligonucleotides A71C, D75C and S81C

1 μl oligonucleotide (approx. 300 pmol)

2 μl 10× kinase buffer containing 10 mM ATP

0.5 μl T4 polynucleotide kinase (10 U/μl, New England Biolabs)

15.5 μl H₂O

1 μl mM spermidine

Reactions were incubated for 1 hr. at 37° C., then 80 μl H₂O was added and the reaction was terminated by heat inactivation at 65° C. for 10 min.

1.4 Mutagenesis Reaction

1 μl fw 191 ss DNA (0.5 pmol)

3 μl kinased oligonucleotide (either A71C, D75C or S81C approx. 45 pmol)

2 μl 10× annealing buffer (Promega)

14 μl H₂O

The no primer control contained:

1 μl fw 191 ss DNA

2 μl 10× annealing buffer

17 μl H₂O

Reactions were heated to 65° C., cooled slowly to 35° C. (approx. 70 min), and put on ice for 5 min. The following reagents were added and the reactions were incubated at 37° C. for 90 min.

3 μl 10× synthesis buffer (Promega)

1 μl T4 gene 32 protein (0.5 μg/μl, Biorad)

1 μl T4 DNA polymerase (3 U/μl, NEB)

0.5 μl T4 DNA ligase (10U/μl, NEB)

200 μl 71-18 mut S competent cells (made according to Promega Altered Sites procedure) were transformed with 10 μl of each mutagenesis reaction, put on ice for 30 min and heat shocked for 2 min at 42° C. The transformation mixture was added to 3 ml 2xYT media and grown at 37° C. (with shaking) for 5.5 hr. After incubation, 1 ml of each of the three cultures was removed, centrifuged and 800 μl was stored in a fresh tube at 4° C. as the stock solution of mutant phage.

1.5 Screening for Mutants of D75C

100 μl of a 10⁻⁵ dilution of the D75C mutant phage stock was plated on 153 mm 2xYT plates overlain with top agar containing 0.5 ml XL-1 cells. Plates were incubated at 37° C. for approx. 5 hrs. Duplicate nitrocellulose filters were lifted off each plate and the plaques were lysed in 6 ml 0.5 M NaOH/1.5 M NaCl, neutralized in 10 ml 1 M Tris-HCl pH 8.0/1.5 M NaCl and washed in 500 ml 6×SSC. The filters were air dried and baked at 75° C. for 45 min. The filters were then boiled briefly in 1% SDS prior to prehybridization. Filters were prehybridized in 20 ml solution for 4 hr at 68° C. The prehybridization solution was as follows:

5×SSC (20× SSC prepared according to recipe in Maniatis).

0.1% (w/v) N-lauroylsarcosine

0.02% (w/v) SDS

0.5% blocking reagent (Genius Kit, Boehringer Mannheim)

The D75C oligonucleotide was labelled with π⁽³²⁾ ATP as follows:

1 μl oligonucleotide (80 pmol)

10 μl 10× kinase buffer

1 μl π⁽³²⁾P ATP (10 μC/μl. Specific activity>3000 Ci/mmol)

87 μl H₂O

1 μl kinase (10 U/μl, NEB)

The reaction was incubated for 5 hrs. at 37° C. Unincorporated ATP was removed by centrifugation through a Biospin 30 column (Biorad). The entire probe (17,000 cpm/μl) was added to the prehybridization mixture and the filters were hybridized overnight at 46° C. along with a no primer control filter. The following day, filters were washed for 10 min. at room temperature (RT) in 6×SSC and exposed overnight at −70° C. on Kodak X-Omat film. Filters were washed in 6×SSC at 57° C. for 10 min, dried and exposed overnight, then washed in 6×SSC/0.1% SDS at 67° C. for 10 min, and dried and re-exposed overnight. The final was washed in 6×SSC/0.1% SDS at 70° C. for 10 min and the filters were again dried and exposed overnight.

Ten plaques were picked which hybridized differentially to the mutant oligonucleotide (compared to the no primer control plaques). The plaques were placed in 5 ml 2xYT media containing 0.25 ml XL-1 cells. The cultures were incubated with shaking at 37° C. for 7.5 hr. 1 ml of each culture was removed, centrifuged 5 min, placed in a fresh tube and stored at 4° C. for subsequent sequencing and plaque purification.

1.6 Screening for Mutants of A71C and S81C

1 μl of a 10⁻³ dilution of the A71C stock phage mutagenesis reaction and 20 μl of a 10⁻⁵ dilution of the S81C mutagenesis reaction were plated on four separate 82 mm 2xYT/tet(10 mg/ml) plates overlaid with 3 ml top agar and 100 μl XL-1 cells. A no primer control was also plated as above. The plates were incubated at 37° C. for 5 hr; plaques were lifted from each plate onto nitrocellulose filters and the filters dried overnight at room temperature. The-following day, the plaques were lysed with 0.5 M NaOH/1.5 M NaCl for 3 min, neutralized in 1 M Tris-HCl pH 7.0/1.5 M NaCl for 3 min and washed in 6×SSC for 5 min. Filters were air dried then baked at 75° C. for 1 hr. The filters were boiled briefly in 1.5% SDS prior to prehybridization at 60° C. for 6 hr. in 10 ml prehybridization solution as described above.

1.7 Labelling of A71C and S81C Oligonucleotides Using Diogoxigenin

(All reagents supplied by Boehringer Mannheim)

2 μl A71C (100 pmol) or 1 μl S81C (110 pmol)

10 μl terminal transferase buffer

5 μl 25 AM CoCl₂

1 μl 1 mM dUTP-digoxigenin

30 μl 04 31 μl H₂O (A71C and S81C reactions respectively)

1 μl terminal transferase (25U/μl)

Reactions were incubated at 37° C. for 3 hr. followed by 6 hr. at RT. Digoxigenin-labelled A71C and S81C probes (20 μl) were added to the appropriate filters in 10 ml prehybridization solution along with a no primer control filter. The filters were hybridized overnight at 47° C.

1.8 Filter Washes and Development

All filters were initially washed in 6×SSC/0.1% SDS for 15 min at 30° C., then for 15 min at 42° C. Each of the four filters which had been probed with either the labelled A71C or S81C oligonucleotides were then separated and washed at increasingly higher temperatures along with a no primer control filter. One each of the A71C and S81C filters were placed in plastic bags containing 10 ml of 6×SSC/0.1% SDS and washed for 10 min at one of four temperatures, i.e., 50° C., 60° C. or 65° C. After the high temperature washes, each set of filters were developed according to the Genius Kit protocol.

Initially, bags containing the filters were filled with 10 ml of 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5/150 mM NaCl (buffer A) and incubated for 15 min. The buffer was removed and replaced with 10 ml buffer A containing 0.5% blocking reagent and incubated a further 15 min at RT without shaking. Anti-digoxigenin antibody (2 μl) was added directly to each bag and incubated with for 30 min at RT. The filters were then removed from their respective bags and washed altogether in 100 ml buffer A/0.05% blocking reagent for 15 min at RT, followed by a 15 min wash in buffer A alone at RT. The final wash was 100 ml 100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 9.5/100 mM NaCl/50 mM MgCl₂ (buffer B) for, 5 min at RT. Each set of filters from a given temperature was placed in a separate bag along with 5 ml of color development solution (5 ml buffer B containing 22.5 μl 75 mg/ml NBT/15 μl 50 mg/ml X-phosphate). The filters were incubated for 30 min in the dark at RT. After 30 min, the filters were removed from the development solution, washed for 5 min in 100 ml 10×TE and 5 min in 100 ml 1× TE, both at RT. Filters were dried at RT.

Using the results from the Genius Kit screening procedure, 10 plaques which differentially hybridized to the labelled oligonucleotides A71C or S81C were picked and placed in 3 ml 2xYT media containing 0.25 ml XL-1 cells and incubated for 7.5 hr. at 37° C. with shaking. 1 ml of each culture was removed, centrifuged 5 min, placed in a fresh tube and stored at 4° C. for subsequent sequencing and plaque purification.

1.9 Confirmation of Mutations by Sequencing

Single stranded DNA was isolated from 800 μl mutant phage stock supernatant and sequenced using the Sequenase kit (USB) with the α 179 oligonucleotide as the primer. The α 179 oligonucleotides is an 18-mer homolog cys to a region about 100 bps upstream of the mutation site. Sequencing confirmed the presence of the αA71C, αD75C and α S81C mutations.

Phage stock was plaque purified by plating 10 μl of 10⁻⁸ and 10⁻¹⁰ dilutions on 2xYT/tet (10 mg/ml) plates overlaid with 3 ml top agar containing 200 μl XL-1 cells. After 7 hrs incubation at 37° C., a single isolated plaque from each mutant plate was picked and used to inoculate 90 ml 2xYT/tet (10 mg/ml) media containing 10 ml XL-1 cells. Cultures were grown overnight at 37° C. with shaking. 1 ml of each mutant phage culture was removed, centrifuged and the supernatant was frozen at −80° C. as the respective purified mutant phage stock. Double stranded DNA was prepared from the remaining culture for use in the subsequent subcloning steps into the final expression vector 1.1E4.

1.10 Subcloning of the α Cys Mutants into 1.1E4

Construction of the di-α gene with each of the three cysteine mutations in either the N-terminal or C-terminal domain of the di-α protein required three subcloning steps:

1) Transfer of the cys mutant α gene from phagescript as an Eagl-Pst1 fragment into the Eag1-Pst1 digested desval α pGem vector (pDL II-91f). This step provided the mutant α gene with the correct 5′ terminus.

2) A mutant di-α gene with each of the cys mutations in the 3′ α gene was constructed by inserting the Eag1 DNA fragment from di-α pGem (pGem di-alpha) into the Eag1 site of the relevant cys mutant desval α pGem plasmid. The mutant diα gene with the cys mutation in the 5′ α gene was constructed by inserting the BstB1 DNA fragment from diα pGem into the BstB1 site of the cys mutant desval α pGem plasmid.

3) Finally each of the mutant diα genes were cloned into the 1.1E4 expression vector as a Sma1-Pst1 fragment.

Transformations into DH5α at each step in the subcloning procedure were carried out as described in the methods of subcloning of the β G83C mutation into 1.1E4 (see below). The presence of the relevant cys mutation in the correct α gene was confirmed by sequencing at each stage in the subcloning procedure. Each of the diα cys mutants in 1.1E4 were transformed into E. coli strain 127, grown in TB complete media and induced with IPTG. Expression of the diα and β proteins was confirmed by SDS-PAGE and Western blot analysis.

EXAMPLE 2 Protocol for the Oxidation of Two SGE1.1 Mono-cys's to Form a Pseudo-octamer

The hemoglobin mutants of interest were expressed in E. coli grown in standard fermentation broth, after induction with IPTG. The cells were pelleted, resuspended in 3 mols of 40 mM Tris-base, 2 mM benzamidine/gm cell paste, lysed by two passes through a MICROFLUIDIZER (Microfluidics, Inc.). The lysate was centrifuged to remove cell debris, and the supernatant was collected. The tetrameric hemoglobin was purified from the supernatant using the methodology described in Mathews, et al. (Methods in Enzymology, in press). Briefly, the supernatant is diluted with 5 mM Tris, pH 7.0 until the conductivity reaches 200 μmhos. The solution, then passed through a flow-through bed of Q SEPHAROSE equilibrated with 20 mM Tris, pH 7.0. The flow through is collected, the pH of the solution is brought up to 8.0 using concentrated NaOH, and then loaded onto a second Q SEPHAROSE column equilibrated in 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0. The hemoglobin captured on the column is washed with 2 column volumes of 20 mM Tris, pH 8.0, and eluted with 20 mM Tris, pH 7.0. Fractions are collected and pooled on the basis of absorbance ratios (A₅₇₅A₅₄₀>1.03). The solution is then buffer exchanged using a MINTAN (Millipore Corp.) into 14 mM sodium phosphate, pH 8-8.5/150 mM approximately 100 mg/ml. Note that at this point in the purification, some of the mutant hemoglobin tetramers have already formed significant levels of octamer (>20%) by simple air oxidation of the cysteines engineered into the molecules. However, to drive oxidation of the remaining cysteine thiols to disulfides, the solution is incubated under air or oxygen for approximately 48 hours at 4° C.

After incubation, the octamers are separated from any unreacted monomer and any higher order polymers using SEPHACRYL S-2 00 equilibrated in 14 mM sodium phosphate, pH 8-8.5/150 mM NaCl at a linear flow rate of 60 cm/hr. Fractions are collected and poolings are verified using an analytical grade SUPEROSE 12 column.

For those hemoglobin mutants where a cysteine replacement is located in close proximity to a negative-charge, or for which disulfide formation is otherwise incomplete, the above procedure is preferably modified to enhance disulfide formation. After concentration to 50 mg/ml using the procedure described above, the hemoglobin solution is converted to carbon monoxy hemoglobin by gentle bubbling with CO. Five Cu++/heme are added to the solution using 100 mm CuCl₂, and the hemoglobin is incubated for 5 minutes on ice, under CO. The reaction is quenched by the addition of a five-fold molar excess (with respect to copper) of Na-EDTA. The resulting octamers are then purified as above.

EXAMPLE 3 Hypothetical Protocol for the Construction of Hemoglobin Molecules Stabilized against Dimer Formation By Fusion Across the Alpha 1-Beta 2 or Alpha 2-Beta 1 Dimer Interface Region

The currently employed inter-dimer di-alpha fusion between the C terminus of one alpha subunit and the N terminus of the adjacent alpha subunit, represents a successful protein engineering approach to stabilizing hemoglobin against dimer formation. In this case, use was made of the fortunate juxtaposition of the two termini which originate from different diners. One might also make a di-beta polypeptide, as has been described, or a hemoglobin with both di-alpha and di-beta polypeptide, as has been described, or a hemoglobin with both di-alpha and di-beta linked subunits. Alternatively, one can envision other types of fusion in which the alpha subunit of one alpha/beta dimer is fused to the beta subunit of the other dimer (FIG. 6). In this, two individual, linked polypeptides would dimerize to form the psuedo-tetrameric hemoglobin. This approach is based on the fact that dimerization involves specific, identical pairs of subunits, generally referred to as α₁β₁ and α₂β₂.

As an example of this alternative fusion approach, the alpha subunit C terminal residue (Arg 141) of dimer 1 could be fused, either directly or with an intervening fusion sequence, to the N-terminal amino acid of the beta subunit C helix (Tyr 35) of dimer 2. This would create a new C terminal residue at the end of the beta B helix (Val 34) and would leave a “free” piece of polypeptide comprised of the beta A and B helices (residues 1 to 34 inclusive). These alterations would give rise to a protein comprised of alpha subunit helices A through H fused to beta subunit helices C through H. The polypeptide composed of the beta subunit A and B helices would be covalently attached to the protein by introducing a new helix into the molecule. The helix would be designed to span the distance between the beta C terminus (His 146) and the original beta N terminus of helix A (Val 1). Following these changes, the sequence of helices from the N to C terminus of the new protein would be (alpha) A-B-C-E-F′-F-G-H-(beta)-C-D-E-F′-F-G-H-NEW-A-B. The actual arrangement of the fusion regions would require careful design so that new regions of structure did not extend into the dimer-dimer interface region which is critical to cooperativity. Introduction of amino acids containing basic or acidic residues into the molecule at certain positions could allow some restoration of functionally important salt bridges and hydrogen bonds which could be lost as a result of manipulating the normal N and C termini. The above approach could also extend to the production of the entire hemoglobin molecule or individual dimers as single polypeptide chains, although in the latter case this would not be expected to offer stabilization against diner formation.

For the purpose of providing the potential for disulfide bond formation, a cysteine may be introduced into either the α or β globin domain of the α₁β₂ pseudodimer.

REFERENCE EXAMPLE A Reconstitution of Recombinant Alpha-Globin and Recombinant Beta-Globin with Heme and Chemical Reduction to Yield Artificial Hemoglobin

Conventional methods of preparing artificial hemoglobin are exemplified by the following procedure.

The lyophilized recombinant alpha and beta-globins (100 mg each) were individually dissolved in 8M urea/50 mM Tris-Cl, pH 8.01/1 mM EDTA/1 mM DTT, diluted to a concentration of 5 mg/ml and incubated at room temperature for 3-4 hours. The alpha-globin was then diluted to 0.3 mg/ml with chilled 20 mM K₂HPO₄, pH 5.7/1 mM EDTA/1 mM DTT. Hemin (25 mg) was dissolved in 2.4 mg 0.1M KOH, diluted with an equal volume of 1M KCN; this solution was then made 0.1 mg/ml in hemin and 20 mM K₂HPO₄, pH 6.7 with stock phosphate buffer. Hemin from this solution was added at a 2.8 molar excess to the chilled alpha-globin; and equal molar amount of beta-globin was added and the solution was dialyzed at 4° C. overnight against 0.1M K₂HPO₄, pH 7.6/1 mM EDTA/1 mM KCN. The artificial Hb solution was concentrated by ultra-filtration using a PM-10 membrane (Amicon) and transferred into a 200 ml screw-top test tube with a rubber septum. The hemoglobin solution was deoxygenated by evacuation and flushing with N₂, and then the solution was saturated with CO. 100 mM sodium dithionite solution was prepared anaerobically in a 20 ml screw-top test tube with rubber septum. 4.5 equivalents of dithionite were added to the Hb solution with a syringe, and the mixture incubated on ice for 15 min. The Hb solution was gel-filtered against 10 mM Na phosphate buffer pH 6.0 on a 4×40 cm SEPHADEX G-25 (fine) column. The colored solution was then applied to a 2×10 cm-52 (Whatman) column equilibrated with the same buffer and the chromatography was developed with a linear gradient of 500 ml 10 mM Na phosphate buffer pH 6.0 and 500 ml of 70 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 6.9. CO was removed from Hb by photolysis under a stream of oxygen. Artificial Hgb prepared this way is isolated in only about 25% yield from the fusion peptides but shows native oxygen binding properties.

REFERENCE EXAMPLE B P₅₀ Determination

Our preferred method of measuring P₅₀ of purified hemoglobin solutions for the purpose of the appended claims is as follows:

Hemoglobin-oxygen equilibrium curves are measured using a HEMOX ANALYZER (TCS Medical Products, Southampton, Pa.) at either 25° C. or 37° C.+0.1° C. in 50 mM HEPES buffer/0.1 M NaCl, pH 7.4. Oxygen equilibrium curves are measured by N₂ deoxygenation of an oxyhemoglobin solution that has been previously equilibrated with water-saturated O₂ (for samples with a P50>10 torr) or with water-saturated compressed air. Absorbance readings at 568 and 558 nm are measured throughout the run for determination of percent oxyhemoglobin in the sample. Percent oxyhemoglobin is directly proportional to log A₅₅₈/log₅₆₈ and is independent of path length. Both the absorbances and the oxygen pressure are sampled by a programmable-gain 12-bit analog-to-digital converter (Labmaster PGH, Scientific Solutions, Solon, Ohio) under computer control. The oxygen equilibrium curve is subjected to a low-pass digital filter. P₅₀ values (partial pressure of O₂ required for 50% saturation of oxygen binding sites) and Hill coefficients (^(n)max) are calculated from the digitally filtered data by using software developed in our laboratory. The Hill coefficients are determined as the maximum slope of the functions dlog[y/(1−y)]/dlog p, where y is % O₂ saturation and p is partial pressure of O₂.

P₅₀ may also be measured under other conditions, but it should be noted that many environmental factors affect hemoglobin's oxygen affinity. The effect of pH CO₂ inorganic unions, organic phosphates and temperature on P₅₀ are discussed in Bunn and Forget, Hemoglobin: Molecular Genetic and Clinical Aspects 37-47, 95-98 (W. B. Saunders Co., 1986).,

Since many determinations of whole blood oxygen binding curves are made under standard physiologic conditions (37° C., pH, 7.4, pCO₂ 40 mm Hg), it may be necessary to adjust literature figures. In this context, it should be noted that a 10° C. increase results in nearly a two-fold increase in P₅₀, while the dependence of P₅₀ on pH is approximately given as delta log P₅₀/delta pH=−0.5.

Comparing P₅₀ values of purified Hb preparations to P₅₀ values of whole blood can be problematic. Whole blood or isolated RBC's contain many components that naturally modulate the shape of the hemoglobin-oxygen binding curve. The RBC encapsulates Hgb in the presence of a high concentration of the effector molecule 2,3-DPG, a molecule that causes Hgb to have a markedly lower affinity for O₂. Other intra-erythrocyte components also affect the shape of the binding curve: ATP, Cl- CO₂, H+, orthophosphate, methemoglobin and carboxyhemoglobin. The levels of these substances may vary with age, sex and condition. These substances are not normally present in purified Hgb solutions and thus, the P₅₀ value of purified Hgb is lower than that found in whole blood. One very important modulator of Hgb-oxygen affinity is Cl- ion. Cl ion is found outside the erythrocyte in the blood serum at a physiologic concentration of approximately 0.15M. Since Cl- causes a lower O₂ affinity, a Hgb solution with a P₅₀ measured in vitro may well have much lower O₂ affinity if infused into the blood stream. Another problem with measuring O₂ binding of whole blood is that RBCs are quite fragile and in the process of manipulating the erythrocyte into the instrument used to measure the O₂ binding it is inevitable that at least a small percentage of the RBCs will lyse. Lysed RBCs leak Hgb into the surrounding media away from 2,3-DPG; hence, since free Hgb has a higher affinity than intraerythrocyte Hgb, lysed RBCs will have a higher O₂ affinity and can cause a falsely low P₅₀ value for whole blood P₅₀ determinations. It is widely accepted that under physiologic conditions while blood has a P50 value of 26-28 mm Hg. When Hgb is isolated from whole blood, however, the measured P₅₀ is on the order of 1-10 mm Hg depending on the investigator's experimental conditions. For these reasons it is most accurate to measure Hgb-oxygen equilibria with purified Hgb molecules under strict conditions of buffer, pH and salt concentrations. Unfortunately, there are no accepted “standards” for all investigators to measure Hgb oxygen binding for in vitro systems.

Still, as many mutant hemoglobins are first identified in patient's whole blood, one would like to be able to compare the relative affinities of native and mutant Hgb for O₂, between whole blood and purified Hgb preparations. An example of this is Hgb Chico (beta lys⁶⁶-thr). If one examined only the P₅₀ value of the purified mutant Hgb (10.1 mmHg) one would note that Hgb has a P₅₀ value less than that for normal whole blood (27.2 mmHg). Still, when that hemoglobin is measured in RBCs under physiologic conditions it is apparent that it does have a higher P₅₀ than normal whole blood (38 mmHg). One cannot predict the degree that the P₅₀ value will change going from whole blood Chico to a purified Hgb Chico if it were infused into the bloodstream as a blood substitute. One can conclude however, that the P₅₀ will be higher than it is in pure form, and that by reacting the mutant Hgb with organic phosphates that P₅₀ will be even higher.

TABLE 1 PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF HUMAN GLOBIN SUBUNITS Helix α Zeta Helix* β δ Gamma ε NA1 1 Val Ser NA1 1 Val Val Gly Val NA2 2 His His His His NA2 2 Leu Leu NA3 3 Leu Leu Phe Phe A1 3 Ser Thr A1 4 Thr Thr Thr Thr A2 4 Pro Lys A2 5 Pro Pro Glu Ala A3 5 Ala Thr A3 6 Glu Glu Glu Glu A4 6 Asp Glu A4 7 Glu Glu Asp Glu A5 7 Lys Arg A5 8 Lys Lys Lys Lys A6 8 Thr Thr A6 9 Ser Thr Ala Ala A7 9 Asn Ile A7 10 Ala Ala Thr Ala A8 10 Val Ile A8 11 Val Val Ile Val A9 11 Lys Val A9 12 Thr Asn Thr Thr A10 12 Ala Ser A10 13 Ala Ala Ser Ser A11 13 Ala Met A11 14 Leu Leu Leu Leu A12 14 Trp Trp A12 15 Trp Trp Trp Trp A13 15 Gly Ala A13 16 Gly Gly Gly Ser A14 16 Lys Lys A14 17 Lys Lys Lys Lys A15 17 Val Ile A15 18 Val Val Val Met A16 18 Gly Ser AB1 19 Ala Thr B1 20 His Gln B1 19 Asn Asn Asn Asn B2 21 Ala Ala B2 20 Val Val Val Val B3 22 Gly Asp B3 21 Asp Asp Glu Glu B4 23 Glu Thr B4 22 Glu Ala Asp Glu B5 24 Tyr Ile B5 23 Val Val Ala Ala B6 25 Gly Gly B6 24 Gly Gly Gly Gly B7 26 Ala Thr B7 25 Gly Gly Gly Gly B8 27 Glu Glu B8 26 Glu Glu Glu Glu B9 28 Ala Thr B9 27 Ala Ala Thr Ala B10 29 Leu Leu B10 28 Leu Leu Leu Leu B11 30 Glu Glu B11 29 Gly Gly Gly Gly B12 31 Arg Arg B12 30 Arg Arg Arg Arg B13 32 Met Leu B13 31 Leu Leu Leu Leu B14 33 Phe Phe B14 32 Leu Leu Leu Leu B15 34 Leu Leu B15 33 Val Val Val Val B16 35 Ser Ser B16 34 Val Val Val Val C1 36 Phe His C1 35 Tyr Tyr Tyr Tyr C2 37 Pro Pro C2 36 Pro Pro Pro Pro C3 38 Thr Gln C3 37 Trp Trp Trp Trp C4 39 Thr Thr C4 38 Thr Thr Thr Thr C5 40 Lys Lys C5 39 Gln Gln Gln Gln C6 41 Thr Thr C6 40 Arg Arg Arg Arg C7 42 Tyr Tyr C7 41 Phe Phe Phe Phe CE1 43 Phe Phe CD1 42 Phe Phe Phe Phe CE2 44 Pro Pro CD2 43 Glu Glu Asp Asp CE3 45 His His CD3 44 Ser Ser Ser Ser CE4 46 Phe Phe CD4 45 Phe Phe Phe Phe CD5 46 Gly Gly Gly Gly CE5 47 Asp Asp CD6 47 Asp Asp Asn Asn CE6 48 Leu Leu CD7 48 Leu Leu Leu Leu CE7 49 Ser His CD8 49 Ser Ser Ser Ser CE8 50 His Pro D1 50 Thr Ser Ser Ser D2 51 Pro Pro Ala Pro D3 52 Asp Asp Ser Ser D4 53 Ala Ala Ala Ala D5 54 Val Val Ile Ile D6 55 Met Met Met Leu CE9 51 Gly Gly D7 56 Gly Gly Gly Gly E1 52 Ser Ser E1 57 Asn Asn Asn Asn E2 53 Ala Ala E2 58 Pro Pro Pro Pro E3 54 Gln Gln E3 59 Lys Lys Lys Lys E4 55 Val Leu E4 60 Val Val Val Val E5 56 Lys Arg E5 61 Lys Lys Lys Lys E6 57 Gly Ala E6 62 Ala Ala Ala Ala E7 58 His His E7 63 His His His His E8 59 Gly Gly E8 64 Gly Gly Gly Gly E9 60 Lys Ser E9 65 Lys Lys Lys Lys E10 61 Lys Lys E10 66 Lys Lys Lys Lys E11 62 Val Val E11 67 Val Val Val Val E12 63 Ala Val E12 68 Leu Leu Leu Leu E13 64 Asp Ala E13 69 Gly Gly Thr Thr E14 65 Ala Ala E14 70 Ala Ala Ser Ser E15 66 Leu Val E15 71 Phe Phe Leu Phe E16 66 Thr Gly E16 72 Ser Ser Gly Gly E17 68 Asn Asp E17 73 Asp Asp Asp Asp E18 69 Ala Ala E18 74 Gly Gly Ala Ala E19 70 Val Val E19 75 Leu Leu Ile, Thr Ile E20 71 Ala Lys E20 76 Ala Ala Lys Lys EF1 72 His Ser EF1 77 His His His Asn EF2 73 Val Ile EF2 78 Leu Leu Leu Met EF3 74 Asp Asp EF3 79 Asp Asp Asp Asp EF4 75 Asp Asp EF4 80 Asn Asn Asp Asn EF5 76 Met Ile EF5 81 Leu Leu Leu Leu EF6 77 Pro Gly EF6 82 Lys Lys Lys Lys EF7 78 Asn Gly EF7 83 Gly Gly Gly Pro EF8 79 Ala Ala EF8 84 Thr Thr Thr Ala F1 80 Leu Leu F1 85 Phe Phe Phe Phe F2 81 Ser Ser F2 86 Ala Ser Ala Ala F3 82 Ala Lys F3 87 Thr Gln Gln Lys F4 83 Leu Leu F4 88 Leu Leu Leu Leu F5 84 Ser Ser F5 89 Ser Ser Ser Ser F6 85 Asp Glu F6 90 Glu Glu Glu Glu F7 86 Leu Leu F7 91 Leu Leu Leu Leu F8 87 His His F8 92 His His His His F9 88 Ala Ala F9 93 Cys Cys Cys Cys FG1 89 His Tyr FG1 94 Asp Asp Asp Asp FG2 90 Lys Ile FG2 95 Lys Lys Lys Lys FG3 91 Leu Leu FG3 96 Leu Leu Leu Leu FG4 92 Arg Arg FG4 97 His His His His FG5 93 Val Val FG5 98 Val Val Val Val G1 94 Asp Asp G1 99 Asp Asp Asp Asp G2 95 Pro Pro G2 100 Pro Pro Pro Pro G3 96 Val Val G3 101 Glu Glu Glu Glu G4 97 Asn Asn G4 102 Asn Asn Asn Asn G5 98 Phe Phe G5 103 Phe Phe Phe Phe G6 99 Lys Lys G6 104 Arg Arg Lys Lys G7 100 Leu Leu G7 105 Leu Leu Leu Leu G8 101 Leu Leu G8 106 Leu Leu Leu Leu G9 102 Ser Ser G9 107 Gly Gly Gly Gly G10 103 His His G10 108 Asn Asn Asn Asn G11 104 Cys Cys G11 109 Val Val Val Val G12 105 Leu Leu G12 110 Leu Leu Leu Met G13 106 Leu Leu G13 111 Val Val Val Val G14 107 Val Val G14 112 Cys Cys Thr Ile G15 198 Thr Thr G15 113 Val Val Val Ile G16 109 Leu Leu G16 114 Leu Leu Leu Leu G17 110 Ala Ala G17 115 Ala Ala Ala Ala G18 111 Ala Ala G18 116 His Arg Ile Thr G19 112 His Arg G19 117 His Asn His His GH1 113 Leu Phe GH1 118 Phe Phe Phe Phe GH2 114 Pro Pro GH2 119 Gly Gly Gly Gly GH3 115 Ala Ala GH3 120 Lys Lys Lys Lys GH4 116 Glu Asp GH4 121 Glu Glu Glu Glu GH5 117 Phe Phe GH5 122 Phe Phe Phe Phe H1 118 Thr Thr H1 123 Thr Thr Thr Thr H2 119 Pro Ala H2 124 Pro Pro Pro Pro H3 120 Ala Glu H3 125 Pro Gln Glu Glu H4 121 Val Ala H4 126 Val Met Val Val H5 122 His His H5 127 Gln Gln Gln Gln H6 123 Ala Ala H6 128 Ala Ala Ala Ala H7 124 Ser Ala H7 129 Ala Ala Ser Ala H8 125 Leu Trp H8 130 Tyr Tyr Trp Trp H9 126 Asp Asp H10 131 Gln Gln Gln Gln 10 127 Lys Lys H10 132 Lys Lys Lys Lys H11 128 Phe Phe H11 133 Val Val Met Leu H12 129 Leu Leu H12 134 Val Val Val Val H13 130 Ala Ser H13 135 Ala Ala Thr Ser H14 131 Ser Val H14 136 Gly Gly Gly, Ala Ala H15 132 Val Val H15 137 Val Val Val Val H16 133 Ser Ser H16 138 Ala Ala Ala Ala H17 134 Thr Ser H17 139 Asn Asn Ser Ile H18 135 Val Val H18 140 Ala Ala Ala Ala H19 136 Leu Leu H19 141 Leu Leu Leu Leu H20 137 Thr Thr H20 142 Ala Ala Ser Ala H21 138 Ser Glu H21 143 His His Ser His HC1 139 Lys Lys HC1 144 Lys Lys Arg Lys HC2 140 Tyr Tyr HC2 145 Tyr Tyr Tyr Tyr HC3 141 Arg Arg HC3 146 His His His His (SEQ ID NO:17) (SEQ ID NO:18) (SEQ ID NO:19) (SEQ ID NO:20) (SEQ ID NO:21-23) (SEQ ID NO:24)

TABLE 2 NATURAL LOW AFFINITY HEMOGLOBIN MUTANTS P₅₀* Hemoglobin Alpha Mutant RBC-Free Hgb Whole Blood (nl) Area of Mutant Reference Hirosaki  43 (CD1) phe→leu n/a heme 1, 2 Torino  43 (CD1) phe→val n/a heme 1, 3 Moabit  86 (F7) leu→arg 30.6 (26.4-29.2) heme 4 Titusville  94 (G1) asp→asn 15.8 (4.7) α₁β₂ 5 P₅₀ (mmHg) Hemoglobin Beta Mutant Hgb (nl) Whole Blood (nl) Area of Mutant Reference Raleigh  1 val→acetyl ala  4.0 (2.2) DPG site 6 Connecticut  21 (B3) asp→gly  5.0 (2.2) B-E helices 7 Moscva  24 (B6) gly→asp 14.8 (12.6) B-E helices 8 Rothschild  37 (C3) trp→arg  3.5 (2.0) α₁β₂ 9 Hazebrouck  38 (C4) thr→pro   36 (27-29) α₁β₂ 10 Hammersmith  42 (CD1) phe→ser n/a heme/α₁β₂ 1, 11 Louisville  42 (CD1) phe→leu   24 (21) heme/α₁β₂ 12, 13 Sendagi  42 (CD1) phe→val 3.75 (3.05) heme/α₁β₂ 14 Cheverley  45 (CD4) phe→ser 38.7 (28.7) heme 15 Okaloosa  48 (CD7) leu→arg 0.95 (0.7)   30 (26) C-D helices 16 Bologna  61 (E5) lys→met 37.6 (27.0) B-E helices 17 Cairo  65 (E9) lys→gln   41 (31) heme 18 Chico  66 (E10) lys→thr 10.1 (5.0) 38.0 (27.2) heme 19 Bristol  67 (E11) val→asp 25.0 (19.0) heme 20 Seattle  70 (E14) ala→asp 43.5 (28.1) heme 21, 22 Vancouver  73 (E17) asp→tyr n/a 1, 23 Korle-Bu  73 (E17) asp→asn n/a 1, 24 Mobile  73 (E17) asp→val n/a Rahere  82 (EF6) lys→thr 15.5 (11.0) DPG site 26 Pyrgos  83 (EF7) gly→asp External 27 Roseau-Pointe  90 (F6) glu→gly   38 (28) α₁β₂ 28 Agenogi  90 (F6) glu→lys  9.0 (6.8) α₁β₂ 29 Caribbean  91 (F7) leu→arg 28.0 (21.0) heme 30 Kansas 102 (G4) asn→thr 28.0 (9.0) α₁β₂ 31 Beth Israel 102 (G4) asn→ser 88.0 (26.0) α₁β₂ 32 Saint Mande 102 (G4) asn→tyr   52 (28) α₁β₂ 33 Richmond 102 (G4) asn→lys n/a α₁β₂ 1, 34 Burke 107 (G9) gly→arg  9.3 (7.7) heme 35 Yoshizuka 108 (G10) asn→asp 12.9 (9.0) α₁β₁ 36 Presbyterian 108 (G10) asn→lys  6.3 (2.5) α₁β₁ 37 Peterborough 111 (G13) val→phe 14.0 (9.0) α₁β₁ 38 New York 113 (G15) val→glu n/a G-helix 1, 39 Hope 136 (H14) gly→asp n/a heme 1, 40 Himeji 140 (H18) ala→asp  5.8 (4.5) *Parenthetical values are that investigator's measured P₅₀ for conventional Hgb A in RBC-free or RBC-bound state, as indicated References for Table 2  1) Hemoglobin 1987, 11, 241-308.  2) Ohba, Y.; Miyaji, T.; Matsuoka, M.; Yokoyama, M.; Numakura, H.; Nagata, K.; Takebe, Y.; Izumu, Y.; Shibata, S. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1975, 405, 155-160.  3) Beretta, A.; Prato, V.; Gall, E.; Lehmann, H. Nature 1968, 217, 1016-1018.  4) Knuth, A.; Pribilla, W.; Marti, H. R.; Winterhalter, K. H. Acta Haematol 1979, 61, 121-124.  5) Schneider, R. G.; Atkins, R. J.; Hosty, T. S.; Tomlin, G.; Casey, R.; Lehmann, H.; Lorkin, P. A.; Nagai, K. Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1975, 400, 365-373.  6) Moo-Penn, W. F.; Bechtel, K. C.; Schmidt, R. M.; Johnson, M. H.; Jue, D. L.; Schmidt, D. E.; Dunlap, W. M.; Opella, S. J.; Bonaventura, J.; Bonaventura, C. Biochemistry 1977, 16, 4872-4879.  7) Moo-Penn, W. F.; McPhedran, P.; Bobrow, S.; Johnson, M. H.; Jue, D. L.; Olsen, K. W. Amer. J. Hermatol 1981, 11, 137-145.  8) Idelson, L. I.; Didkowsky, N. A.; Casey, R.; Lorkin, P.A.; Lehmann, H. Nature 1974, 249, 768-770.  9) Gacon, G.; Belkhodja, O.; Wajcman, H.; Labie, D. Febs Lett 1977, 82, 243-246. 10) Blouquit.; Delanoe, Garin, J.; Lacombe, C.; Arous, N.; Cayre, Y.; Peduzzi, J.; Braconnier, F.; Galacteros, F.; Febs Lett. 1984, 172, 155-158. 11) Dacie, J. V.; Shinton, N. K.; Gaffney, P. J.; Carrell, R. W.; Lehmann, H. Nature 1967, 216, 663-665. 12) Keeling, M. M.; Ogden, L. L.; Wrightstone, R. N.; Wilson, J. B.; Reynolds, C. A.; Kitchens, J. L.; Huisman, T. H. J. Clin. Invest. 1971, 50, 2395-2402. 13) Bratu, V.; Larkin, P. A.; Lehmann, H.; Predescu, C. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1971, 251, 1-6. 14) Ogata, K.; Ho, T.; Okazaki, T.: Dan, K.; Nomura, T.; Nozawa, Y.; Kajita, A. Hemoglobin 1986, 10, 469-481. 15) Yeager, A. M.; Zinkham, W. H.; Jue, D. L.; Winslow, R. M.; Johnson, M. H.; McGuffey, J. E.; Moo-Penn, W. F. Ped. Res. 1983, 17, 503-507. 16) Charache, S.; Brimhall, B.; Milner, P.; Cobb, L. J. Clin. Invest. 1973, 52, 2858-2864. 17) Marinucci, M.; Giuliani, A.; Maffi, D.; Massa, A.; Giampolo, A.; Mavilio, F.; Zannotti, M.; Tantori, L. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1981, 668, 209-215. 18) Garel, M. C.; Hasson, W.; Coquelet, M. T.; Goosens, M.; Rosa, J.; Arous, N. Biochem.  Biophys. Acta. 1976, 420, 97-104. 19) Shih, D. T.; Jones, R. T.; Shih, M. F. C.; Jones, M. B.; Koler, R. D.; Hemoglobin 1987, 11, 453-464. 20) Steadman, J. H.; Yates, A.; Huehns, E. R.; Brit, J. Haematol 1970, 18, 435-446. 21) Stamatoyannopoules, G.; Parer, J. T.; Finch, C. New Eng. J. Med. 1969, 281, 915-919. 22) Anderson, N. L.; Perutz, M. F.; Stamatoyannopoulos, G. Nature New Biol. 1973, 243, 275-276. 23) Jones, R. T.; Brimhall, B.; Pootrakul, S.; Gray, G. J. Mol. Evol. 1976, 9, 37-44. 24) Konotey-Ahulu, F. I. D.; Gallo, E.; Lehmann, H.; Ringelhann, B. J. Med. Genet. 1968, 5, 107-111 25) Schneider, R. G.; Hosty, T. S.; Tomlin, G.; Atkins, R.; Brimhall, B.; Jones, R. T. Biochem. Genet. 1975, 13, 411-415. 26) Sugihara, J.; Imamura, T.; Nagafuchi, S.; Bonaventura, J.; Bonaventura, C.; Cashon, R. J. Clin. Invest. 1985, 76, 1169-1173. 27) Tatsis, B.; Sofroniadou, K.; Stergiopoulas, C. I. Blood 1976, 47, 827-832. 28) Merault, G.; Keclard, L; Saint-Martin, C.; Jasmin, K.; Campier, A.; Delanoe Garin, J.; Arous, N.; Fortune, R.; Theodore, M.; Seytor, S.; Rosa, J.; Blouquit, Y.; Galacteros, F. Febs Lett. 1985, 184, 10-13. 29) Imai; K.; Morimoto, H.; Kotani, M.; Shibata, S.; Miyaji, T.l Matsutomo, K. Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1970, 200, 197-202. 30) Ahern, E.; Ahern, V.; Hilton, T.; Serjeant, G. D.; Serjeant, B. E.; Seakins, M.; Lang, A.; Middleton, A.; Lehmann, H. Febs Lett. 1976, 69, 99-102. 31) Bonaventura, J.; Riggs, A.; J. Biol. Chem. 1968, 243, 980-991. 32) Nagel, R. L.; Lynfield, J.; Johnson, J.; Landeau, L.; Bookchin, R. M.; Harris, M. B. N. Eng. J. Med. 1976, 295, 125-130. 33) Arous, N.; Braconnier, F.; Thillet, J.; Blouquit, Y.; Galacteros, F.; Chevrier, M.; Bordahandy, C.; Rosa, J. Febs Lett. 1981, 126, 114-116. 34) Efremov, G. D.; Huisman, T. H. J.; Smith, L. L.; Wilson, J. B.; Kitchens, J. L.; Wrightston, R. N.; Adams, H. R.; J. Biol. Chem. 1969, 244, 6105-6116. 35) Turner, J. W.; Jones, R. T.; Brimhall, B.; DuVal, M. C.; Koler, R. D. Biochem. Genet. 1976, 14, 577-585. 36) Imamura, T.; Fujita, S.; Ohta, Y.; Hanada, M.; Yanase, T. J. Clin. Invest.  1969, 48, 2341-2348. 37) Moo-Penn, W. F.; Wolff, J. A.; Simon, G.; Vacek, M.; Jue, D. L.; Johnson, M. H. Febs Lett. 1978, 92, 53-56. 38) King, M. A. R.; Willshire, B. G.; Lehmann, H.; Marimoto, H. Br. J. Haem.  1972, 22, 125-134. 39) Ranney, H. M.; Jacobs, A. S.; Nagel, R. L. Nature 1967, 213, 876-878. 40) Minnich, V.; Hill, R. J.; Khuri, P. D.; Anderson M. E. Blood 1965, 25, 830-838. 41) Ohba, Y.; Miyaji, T.; Murakami, M.; Kadowaki, S.; Fujita, T.; Oimoni, M.; Hatanaka, H.; Ishikawa, K.; Baba, S.; Hitaka, K.; Imai, K. Hemoglobin 1986, 10, 109-126.

TABLE 3 Candidate Non-Naturally Occurring Low Affinity Hemoglobin Mutants alpha chain 46 phe-->thr 46 phe-->ser 46 phe-->ala 58 his-->phe 58 his-->trp 61 his-->thr 61 lys-->ser 61 lys-->met 61 lys-->asn 62 val-->leu 62 val-->ile 62 val-->phe 62 val-->trp 65 ala-->asp 94 asp-->gln 94 asp-->thr 94 asp-->ser 94 asp-->lys 94 asp-->gly 94 asp-->arg beta chain 21 asp-->ala 21 asp-->ser 45 phe-->ala 45 phe-->thr 45 phe-->val 63 his-->phe 63 his-->trp 66 lys-->ser 66 lys-->asn 67 val-->phe 67 val-->trp 67 val-->ile 70 ala-->glu 70 ala-->ser 70 ala-->thr 96 leu-->phe 96 leu-->his 96 leu-->lys 98 val-->trp 98 val-->phe 102 asn-->asp  102 asn-->glu  102 asn-->arg  102 asn-->his  102 asn-->gly  108 asn-->arg  108 asn-->glu 

TABLE 400 HIGH OXYGEN AFFINITY, NATURALLY OCCURRING HEMOGLOBIN MUTANTS Structure Name A. Alpha Chain Mutants  6 (A4) Asp->AlaSawara Asp->AsnDunn Asp->ValFerndown Asp->TyrWoodville Lys->AsnAlbany-Suma  40 (C5) Lys->GluKariya  44 (CE2) Pro->LeuMilledgeville Pro->ArgKawachi  45 (CE3) His->ArgFort de France  85 (F6) Asp->AsnG-Norfolk  92 (FG4) Arg->GlnJ-Cape Town Arg->LeuChesapeake  95 (G2) Pro->LeuG-Georgia Pro->SerRampa Pro->AlaDenmark Hill Pro->ArgSt. Luke's  97 (G4) Asn->LysDallas 126 (H9) Asp->AsnTarrant 141 (HC3) Arg >HisSuresnes Arg >SerJ-Cubujuqui Arg >LeuLegnano B. Beta Chain Mutants  2 (NA2) His->ArgDeer Lodge His->GlnOkayama  20 (B2) Val->MetOlympia  23 (B5) Val->AspStrasbourg Val->PhePalmerston North  34 (B16) Val->PhePitie-Salpetriere  36 (C2) Pro->ThrLinkoping  37 (C3) Trp->SerHirose  40 (C6) Arg >LysAthens-Ga Arg->SerAustin  51 (D2) Pro->ArgWillamette Leu->HisBrisbane  79 (EF3) Asp->Gly G-Hsi-Tsou Lys->ThrRahere Lys >MetHelsinki  89 (F5) Ser->AsnCreteil Ser->ArgVanderbilt  94 (FG1) Asp->HisBarcelona Asp->AsnBunbury  96 (FG3) Leu->Val Regina  97 (FG4) His->GlnMalmo His->LeuWood  99 (G1) Asp->AsnKemps ey Asp->HisYakima Asp->AlaRadcliffe Asp->Tyr Yps ilanti Asp->GlyHotel-Dieu Asp->Val Chemilly 100 (G2) Pro->LeuBrigham 101 (G3) Glu->LysBritish Columbia Glu->GlyAlberta Glu->AspPotomac 103 (G5) Phe->LeuHeathrow 109 (G11) Val->MetSan Diego 121 (GH4) Glu->GlnD-Los Angeles Pro->GlnTu Gard Ala->ProCrete 140 (H18) Ala->ThrSt.-Jacques 142 (H20) Ala->AspOhio 143 (H21) His->ArgAbruzzo His->GlnLittle Rock His->ProSyracuse 144 (HC1) Lys->AsnAndrew-Minneapolis 145 (HC2) Tyr->HisBethesda Tyr->CysRainier Tyr->AspFort Gordon Tyr->TermMcKees Rocks 146 (HC3) His->AspHiroshima His->ProYork His->LeuCowtown

33 1 1460 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence synthetic gene expression of (des-Val)-alpha-(Gly)-alpha and des-Val beta globin 1 aattcgagct cggtacccgg gctacatgga gattaactca atctagaggg tattaataat 60 gtatcgctta aataaggagg aataacatat gctgtctccg gccgataaaa ccaacgttaa 120 agctgcttgg ggtaaagttg gcgcgcacgc tggtgaatac ggtgctgaag ctctcgagcg 180 tatgttcctg tctttcccga ccaccaaaac ctacttcccg cacttcgacc tgtctcacgg 240 ttctgcgcag gttaaaggtc acggtaaaaa agttgctgat gctctgacca acgctgttgc 300 tcacgttgat gatatgccga acgcgttgtc tgctctgtct gatctgcacg ctcacaaact 360 gcgtgttgat ccggttaact tcaaactgct gtctcactgc ctgctggtta ctctggctgc 420 tcatctgccg gctgaattta ccccggctgt tcatgcgtct ctggataaat tcctggcttc 480 tgtttctacc gttctgactt cgaaataccg tggtgttctg tctccggccg ataaaaccaa 540 cgttaaagct gcttggggta aagttggcgc gcacgctggt gaatacggtg ctgaagctct 600 cgagcgtatg ttcctgtctt tcccgaccac caaaacctac ttcccgcact tcgacctgtc 660 tcacggttct gcgcaggtta aaggtcacgg taaaaaagtt gctgatgctc tgaccaacgc 720 tgttgctcac gttgatgata tgccgaacgc gttgtctgct ctgtctgatc tgcacgctca 780 caaactgcgt gttgatccgg ttaacttcaa actgctgtct cactgcctgc tggttactct 840 ggctgctcat ctgccggctg aatttacccc ggctgttcat gcgtctctgg ataaattcct 900 ggcttctgtt tctaccgttc tgacttcgaa ataccgttaa tgactgcagc tacatggaga 960 ttaactcaat ctagagggta ttaataatgt atcgcttaaa taaggaggaa taacatatgc 1020 acctgactcc ggaagaaaaa tccgcggtta ctgctctgtg gggtaaagtg aacgttgacg 1080 aagttggtgg tgaagctctg ggacgtctgc tggttgttta cccgtggact cagcgtttct 1140 ttgaatcttt cggagatctg tctaccccgg acgctgttat gggtaacccg aaagttaaag 1200 cccatggtaa aaaagttctg ggtgctttct ctgacggtct ggctcacctg gacaacctga 1260 aaggtacctt cgctactctg tctgagctcc actgcgacaa actgcacgtt gacccggaaa 1320 acttccgtct gctgggtaac gtactagttt gcgttctggc tcaccacttc ggtaaagaat 1380 tcactccgcc ggttcaggct gcttaccaga aagttgttgc tggtgttgct aacgcgctag 1440 ctcacaaata ccactaatga 1460 2 4 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence oligopeptide 2 Ile Glu Gly Arg 1 3 5 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence alpha globin 3 Val His Leu Thr Pro 1 5 4 4 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence peptide 4 Ser Lys Tyr Arg 1 5 4 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence peptide 5 Val Leu Ser Pro 1 6 4 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence peptide 6 His Lys Tyr His 1 7 4 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence peptide 7 Val His Leu Thr 1 8 37 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence alpha- helical coiled 8 Lys Cys Ala Glu Leu Glu Gly Arg Leu Glu Ala Leu Glu Gly Arg Leu 1 5 10 15 Glu Ala Leu Glu Gly Arg Leu Glu Ala Leu Glu Gly Arg Leu Glu Ala 20 25 30 Leu Glu Gly Lys Leu 35 9 16 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence crosslinker 9 Gly Glu Leu Glu Glu Leu Leu Lys Lys Leu Lys Glu Leu Leu Lys Gly 1 5 10 15 10 9 RNA Artificial Sequence variation (2) n=a or g 10 gngccaugg 9 11 4 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence Factor X site 11 Ile Glu Gly Arg 1 12 31 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence oligonucleotide 12 gcggccgcgg aagagtcaat tcaggagggt g 31 13 32 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence oligonucleotide 13 gcggccgtca ctgcccgctt tccagtcggg aa 32 14 27 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence oligonucleotide 14 ccgaacgcgt tgtgcgctct gtctgat 27 15 30 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence oligonucleotide 15 ggtgctcacg ttgattgcat gccgaacgcg 30 16 30 DNA Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence oligonucleotide 16 ctgaccaacg ctgtttgcca cgttgatgat 30 17 141 PRT Human hemoglobin 17 Val Leu Ser Pro Ala Asp Lys Thr Asn Val Lys Ala Ala Trp Gly Lys 1 5 10 15 Val Gly Ala His Ala Gly Glu Tyr Gly Ala Glu Ala Leu Glu Arg Met 20 25 30 Phe Leu Ser Phe Pro Thr Thr Lys Thr Tyr Phe Pro His Phe Asp Leu 35 40 45 Ser His Gly Ser Ala Gln Val Lys Gly His Gly Lys Lys Val Ala Asp 50 55 60 Ala Leu Thr Asn Ala Val Ala His Val Asp Asp Met Pro Asn Ala Leu 65 70 75 80 Ser Ala Leu Ser Asp Leu His Ala His Lys Leu Arg Val Asp Pro Val 85 90 95 Asn Phe Lys Leu Leu Ser His Cys Leu Leu Val Thr Leu Ala Ala His 100 105 110 Leu Pro Ala Glu Phe Thr Pro Ala Val His Ala Ser Leu Asp Lys Phe 115 120 125 Leu Ala Ser Val Ser Thr Val Leu Thr Ser Lys Tyr Arg 130 135 140 18 141 PRT Human hemoglobin 18 Ser Leu Thr Lys Thr Glu Arg Thr Ile Ile Val Ser Met Trp Ala Lys 1 5 10 15 Ile Ser Thr Gln Ala Asp Thr Ile Gly Thr Glu Thr Leu Glu Arg Leu 20 25 30 Phe Leu Ser His Pro Gln Thr Lys Thr Tyr Phe Pro His Phe Asp Leu 35 40 45 His Pro Gly Ser Ala Gln Leu Arg Ala His Gly Ser Lys Val Val Ala 50 55 60 Ala Val Gly Asp Ala Val Lys Ser Ile Asp Asp Ile Gly Gly Ala Leu 65 70 75 80 Ser Lys Leu Ser Glu Leu His Ala Tyr Ile Leu Arg Val Asp Pro Val 85 90 95 Asn Phe Lys Leu Leu Ser His Cys Leu Leu Val Thr Leu Ala Ala Arg 100 105 110 Phe Pro Ala Asp Phe Thr Ala Glu Ala His Ala Ala Trp Asp Lys Phe 115 120 125 Leu Ser Val Val Ser Ser Val Leu Thr Asp Lys Thr Arg 130 135 140 19 146 PRT Human hemoglobin 19 Val His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Lys Thr Ala Val Asn Ala Leu Trp Gly 1 5 10 15 Lys Val Asn Val Asp Ala Val Gly Gly Glu Ala Leu Gly Arg Leu Leu 20 25 30 Val Val Tyr Pro Trp Thr Gln Arg Phe Phe Glu Ser Phe Gly Asp Leu 35 40 45 Ser Ser Pro Asp Ala Val Met Gly Asn Pro Lys Val Lys Ala His Gly 50 55 60 Lys Lys Val Leu Gly Ala Phe Ser Asp Gly Leu Ala His Leu Asp Asn 65 70 75 80 Leu Lys Gly Thr Phe Ser Gln Leu Ser Glu Leu His Cys Asp Lys Leu 85 90 95 His Val Asp Pro Glu Asn Phe Arg Leu Leu Gly Asn Val Leu Val Cys 100 105 110 Val Leu Ala Arg Asn Phe Gly Lys Glu Phe Thr Pro Gln Met Gln Ala 115 120 125 Ala Tyr Gln Lys Val Val Ala Gly Val Ala Asn Ala Leu Ala His Lys 130 135 140 Tyr His 145 20 146 PRT Human hemoglobin 20 Val His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Lys Thr Ala Val Asn Ala Leu Trp Gly 1 5 10 15 Lys Val Asn Val Asp Ala Val Gly Gly Glu Ala Leu Gly Arg Leu Leu 20 25 30 Val Val Tyr Pro Trp Thr Gln Arg Phe Phe Gly Ser Phe Gly Asp Leu 35 40 45 Ser Ser Pro Asp Ala Val Met Gly Asn Pro Lys Val Lys Ala His Gly 50 55 60 Lys Lys Val Leu Gly Ala Phe Ser Asp Gly Leu Ala His Leu Asp Asn 65 70 75 80 Leu Lys Gly Thr Phe Ser Gln Leu Ser Glu Leu His Cys Asp Lys Leu 85 90 95 His Val Asp Pro Glu Asn Phe Arg Leu Leu Gly Asn Val Leu Val Cys 100 105 110 Val Leu Ala Arg Asn Phe Gly Lys Glu Phe Thr Pro Gln Met Gln Ala 115 120 125 Ala Tyr Gln Lys Val Val Ala Gly Val Ala Asn Ala Leu Ala His Lys 130 135 140 Tyr His 145 21 147 PRT Human hemoglobin VARIANT (75) Xaa= Ile or Thr 21 Gly His Phe Thr Glu Glu Asp Lys Ala Thr Ile Thr Ser Leu Trp Gly 1 5 10 15 Lys Val Asn Val Glu Asp Ala Gly Gly Glu Thr Leu Gly Arg Leu Leu 20 25 30 Val Val Tyr Pro Trp Thr Gln Arg Phe Phe Asp Ser Phe Gly Asn Leu 35 40 45 Ser Ser Ala Ser Ala Ile Met Gly Asn Pro Lys Val Lys Ala His Gly 50 55 60 Lys Lys Val Leu Thr Ser Leu Gly Asp Ala Xaa Thr Lys His Leu Asp 65 70 75 80 Leu Lys Gly Thr Phe Ala Gln Leu Ser Asp Leu His Cys Glu Lys Leu 85 90 95 His Val Asp Pro Glu Asn Phe Lys Leu Leu Gly Asn Val Leu Val Thr 100 105 110 Val Leu Ala Ile His Phe Gly Lys Glu Phe Thr Pro Glu Val Gln Ala 115 120 125 Ser Trp Gln Lys Met Val Thr Gly Ala Val Ala Ser Ala Leu Ser Ser 130 135 140 Arg Tyr His 145 22 146 PRT Human hemoglobin 22 Val His Phe Thr Ala Glu Glu Lys Ala Ala Val Thr Ser Leu Trp Ser 1 5 10 15 Lys Met Asn Val Glu Glu Ala Gly Gly Glu Ala Leu Gly Arg Leu Leu 20 25 30 Val Val Tyr Pro Trp Thr Gln Arg Phe Phe Asp Ser Phe Gly Asn Leu 35 40 45 Ser Ser Pro Ser Ala Ile Leu Gly Asn Pro Lys Val Lys Ala His Gly 50 55 60 Lys Lys Val Leu Thr Ser Phe Gly Asp Ala Ile Lys Asn Met Asp Asn 65 70 75 80 Leu Lys Pro Ala Phe Ala Lys Leu Ser Glu Leu His Cys Asp Lys Leu 85 90 95 His Val Asp Pro Glu Asn Phe Lys Leu Leu Gly Asn Val Met Val Ile 100 105 110 Ile Leu Ala Thr His Phe Gly Lys Glu Phe Thr Pro Glu Val Gln Ala 115 120 125 Ala Trp Gln Lys Leu Val Ser Ala Val Ala Ile Ala Leu Ala His Lys 130 135 140 Tyr His 145 23 8 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence ribosomal loader 23 Met Tyr Arg Leu Asn Lys Glu Glu 1 5 24 141 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence alpha globin sequence 24 Met Leu Ser Pro Ala Asp Lys Thr Asn Val Lys Ala Ala Trp Gly Lys 1 5 10 15 Val Gly Ala His Ala Gly Glu Tyr Gly Ala Glu Ala Leu Glu Arg Met 20 25 30 Phe Leu Ser Phe Pro Thr Thr Lys Thr Tyr Phe Pro His Phe Asp Leu 35 40 45 Ser His Gly Ser Ala Gln Val Lys Gly His Gly Lys Lys Val Ala Asp 50 55 60 Ala Leu Thr Asn Ala Val Ala His Val Asp Asp Met Pro Asn Ala Leu 65 70 75 80 Ser Ala Leu Ser Asp Leu His Ala His Lys Leu Arg Val Asp Pro Val 85 90 95 Asn Phe Lys Leu Leu Ser His Cys Leu Leu Val Thr Leu Ala Ala His 100 105 110 Leu Pro Ala Glu Phe Thr Pro Ala Val His Ala Ser Leu Asp Lys Phe 115 120 125 Leu Ala Ser Val Ser Thr Val Leu Thr Ser Lys Tyr Arg 130 135 140 25 141 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence alpha globin sequence 25 Val Leu Ser Pro Ala Asp Lys Thr Asn Val Lys Ala Ala Trp Gly Lys 1 5 10 15 Val Gly Ala His Ala Gly Glu Tyr Gly Ala Glu Ala Leu Glu Arg Met 20 25 30 Phe Leu Ser Phe Pro Thr Thr Lys Thr Thr Phe Pro His Phe Asp Leu 35 40 45 Ser His Gly Ser Ala Gln Val Lys Gly His Gly Lys Lys Val Ala Asp 50 55 60 Ala Leu Thr Asn Ala Val Ala His Val Asp Asp Met Pro Asn Ala Leu 65 70 75 80 Ser Ala Leu Ser Asp Leu His Ala His Lys Leu Arg Val Asp Pro Val 85 90 95 Asn Phe Lys Leu Leu Ser His Cys Leu Leu Val Thr Leu Ala Ala His 100 105 110 Leu Pro Ala Glu Phe Thr Pro Ala Val His Ala Ser Leu Asp Lys Phe 115 120 125 Leu Ala Ser Val Ser Thr Val Leu Thr Ser Lys Tyr Arg 130 135 140 26 146 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence beta globin sequence 26 Met His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Lys Ser Ala Val Thr Ala Leu Trp Gly 1 5 10 15 Lys Val Asn Val Asp Glu Val Gly Gly Glu Ala Leu Gly Arg Leu Leu 20 25 30 Val Val Tyr Pro Trp Thr Gln Arg Phe Phe Glu Ser Phe Gly Asp Leu 35 40 45 Ser Thr Pro Asp Ala Val Met Gly Asn Pro Lys Val Lys Ala His Gly 50 55 60 Lys Lys Val Leu Gly Ala Phe Ser Asp Gly Leu Ala His Leu Asp Asn 65 70 75 80 Leu Lys Gly Thr Phe Ala Thr Leu Ser Glu Leu His Cys Asp Lys Leu 85 90 95 His Val Asp Pro Glu Asn Phe Arg Leu Leu Gly Asn Val Leu Val Cys 100 105 110 Val Leu Ala His His Phe Gly Lys Glu Phe Thr Pro Pro Val Gln Ala 115 120 125 Ala Tyr Gln Lys Val Val Ala Gly Val Ala Asn Ala Leu Ala His Lys 130 135 140 Tyr His 145 27 177 PRT Artificial Sequence VARIANT (129) Xaa=(1-3 Gly) 27 Leu Ser Pro Ala Asp Lys Thr Asn Val Lys Ala Ala Trp Gly Gly Gly 1 5 10 15 Tyr Pro Trp Thr Gly Arg Phe Phe Glu Ser Phe Gly Asp Leu Ser Thr 20 25 30 Pro Asp Ala Val Met Gly Asn Pro Lys Val Lys Ala His Gly Lys Lys 35 40 45 Val Leu Gly Ala Phe Ser Asp Gly Leu Ala His Leu Asp Asn Leu Lys 50 55 60 Gly Thr Phe Ala Thr Leu Ser Glu Leu His Cys Asp Lys Leu His Val 65 70 75 80 Asp Pro Glu Asn Phe Arg Leu Leu Gly Asn Val Leu Val Cys Val Leu 85 90 95 Ala His His Phe Gly Lys Glu Phe Thr Pro Pro Val Gln Ala Ala Tyr 100 105 110 Gln Lys Val Val Ala Gly Val Ala Asn Ala Leu Ala His Lys Tyr His 115 120 125 Xaa Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Xaa Val 130 135 140 His Leu Thr Pro Glu Glu Lys Ser Ala Val Thr Ala Leu Trp Gly Lys 145 150 155 160 Val Asn Val Asp Glu Val Gly Gly Glu Ala Leu Gly Arg Leu Leu Val 165 170 175 Val 28 14 PRT Artificial Sequence VARIANT (1) Xaa=>1 Gly 28 Xaa Leu Arg Arg Gln Ile Asp Leu Glu Val Thr Gly Leu Xaa 1 5 10 29 36 PRT Artificial Sequence VARIANT (1) Xaa=>1 Gly 29 Xaa Lys Cys Ala Glu Leu Glu Gly Lys Leu Glu Ala Leu Glu Gly Lys 1 5 10 15 Leu Glu Ala Leu Glu Gly Lys Leu Glu Ala Leu Glu Gly Lys Leu Glu 20 25 30 Ala Leu Glu Gly 35 30 7 PRT Artificial Sequence Description of Artificial Sequence linker 30 Gly Gly Gly Gly Gly Gly Gly 1 5 31 14 PRT Artificial Sequence VARIANT (1) Xaa=1-3 Gly 31 Xaa Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Ala Xaa 1 5 10 32 13 PRT Artificial Sequence VARIANT (1) Xaa=1-3 Gly 32 Xaa Pro Pro Pro Pro Pro Pro Pro Pro Pro Pro Xaa Xaa 1 5 10 33 3 PRT Artificial Sequence VARIANT (1) Xaa=1-3 Gly 33 Xaa Xaa Xaa 

What is claimed is:
 1. A non-naturally occurring pseudotetrameric hemoglobin-like protein comprising a pseudodimeric polypeptide having two substantially homologous globin-like domains, one of which is mutated to provide an asymmetric crosslinkable cysteine residue, wherein the corresponding residue in the other globin-like domain of said pseudodimeric polypeptide is an amino acid other than cysteine, and wherein said pseudotetramer further comprises at least one other globin-like domain-bearing polypeptide, and wherein the asymmetric crosslinkable cysteine residue is a mutation in the alpha globin-like domain corresponding to a human alpha globin position selected from the group consisting of lys7, thr8, lys11, ala12, ,gly15, lys16, gly18, ala19, his20, glu23, and thr24.
 2. The non-naturally occurring pseudotetrameric hemoglobin-like protein of claim 1 wherein the asymmetric crosslinkable cysteine residue is a mutation in the alpha globin-like domain corresponding to human alpha globin position lys16.
 3. A non-naturally occurring pseudotetrameric hemoglobin-like protein comprising a pseudodimeric polypeptide having two substantially homologous globin-like domains, one of which is mutated to provide an asymmetric crosslinkable cysteine residue, wherein the corresponding residue in the other globin-like domain of said pseudodimeric polypeptide is an amino acid other than cysteine, and wherein said pseudotetramer further comprises at least one other globin-like domain-bearing polypeptide, and wherein the asymmetric crosslinkable cystine residue is a mutation in the beta globin-like domain corresponding to a human beta globin position selected from the group consisting of his2, leu3, thr4, glu6, ser9, thr12, ala13, gly16, lys17, val18, asn19, val20, asp21, and glu22.
 4. The non-naturally occurring pseudotetrameric hemoglobin-like protein of claim 3 wherein the asymmetric crosslinkable cysteine residue is a mutation in the beta globin-like domain corresponding to human beta globin position ser9.
 5. The non-naturally occurring pseudotetrameric hemoglobin-like protein of claim 3 wherein the asymmetric crosslinkable cysteine residue is a mutation in the beta globin-like domain corresponding to human beta globin position ala13.
 6. A recombinant mutant hemoglobin-like protein comprising a mutation in a beta-globin like domain at amino acid position 93, wherein the cysteine at position 93 is replaced with an amino acid chosen from the group consisting of alanine and threonine.
 7. The recombinant mutant hemoglobin-like protein of claim 6, wherein the cysteine at position 93 is replaced with alanine. 